Today’s era predominates with a high intellect. Every aspect of our life is fully influenced by the modern scientific principle of proof and sound logic. As a result world humanity requires both proof and logic as far as philosophy is concerned too. Only after testing it thus will they deign to accept its usefulness. Truth and Reality will be imbibed only after it is tested via logic and scientific proof. This insistence of ‘proof’ has greatly challenged the very existence of Spiritual Sciences. Man’s glory and social arrangement has its roots in high leveled faith that encompasses both sacred ideals and principles. Sheer intellectualism with its emphasis on direct proof has truly harmed man’s faith potential. Logic and proof says that faith is ‘blind’. Hence today’s need of the hour is to test Spiritual Values like faith, trust, ideals etc on the basis of scientific logic and principles along with its utility and proof of its very existence. For this those very scientific research need to be deployed which are today being used by Modern Material Science.

Today everyone fully accepts the importance of Material Science. Its utility and importance have always remained in vogue because it tests itself on the basis of logic, experimentation and research. In addition to this it never wavers when it is required to give up beliefs that are not scientifically sound and rational. Of course it is a well known fact that scientific findings do tend to change every now and then. If for the first time some proof is found it is not necessary that it will remain eternally correct. This is because when newer discoveries and inventions unfold the previous conclusions are renounced. Thus scientific findings at a particular point in time are accepted as true only until new findings later disprove their veracity. Hence the previous finding henceforth does not hold true as it did previously. It is this yearning for truth that helps Modern Science retain its importance and utility.

The attainments of Spiritual Science are infinitely more than those of Material Science. Hence its importance too is n-fold more than modern science. Thus it is most required that greater attention be paid to it. Since in ancient times Spiritual Science was given a lot of importance man’s overall glory too reached high peaks. But later the more man’s soul force weakened the more he headed towards both a material and spiritual degradation. Hence if we wish to herald in a radiant future in the 21st century optimum usage of soul principles are the need of the hour. Thus keeping this in mind it is most required that Spiritual Sciences be researched in a modern scientific manner and place them in front of all so as to imbibe them in their pristine purity.

It is Spiritual Philosophy that is the foundation stone of human thought/viewpoint. It is the very life force of spirituality. Man’s wholesome thinking or otherwise is totally dependent on the beliefs of social norm that are in vogue at a particular time. The basis of high leveled thought flow during the Rishi Era was Spiritual Philosophy that was in vogue. It ceaselessly inspired human beings to strive for supremacy as far as wholesome thought and activity was concerned. As a result heavenly situations manifested and divinely human beings took birth. Serious questions regarding the soul, God’s existence, God’s glory, fruits of ones past/present/future actions, creation of this world and the aim behind it can only be answered by Spiritual Philosophy.

During varying times and circumstances great Rishis of yore gave us philosophical tenets to suit those times and requirements. As long as the Rishi Yuga existed, this tradition continued thus creating heavenly situations for world beings. But later during the Middle Age a fairly long time span of darkness and gloom prevailed. Since in this dark period unruliness and anarchy took over philosophy, righteousness and spirituality were totally ignored by one and all. During such dire times it is most required that one is alert enough to gauge what is apt and what is not apt. Thus we should develop an intellect which leans towards research so as to understand what is true and what is its day to day usefulness.

Ancient and very useful spiritual principles need to be put forth to world humanity in such a way wherein there remains no room for doubt as far as its utility and veracity is concerned especially in today’s Jet Age.

Great Rishis elucidated various behavioral depending on each circumstance and its requirement. Smritis clearly depict such differences in norms laid down. The different norms laid down by great seers during various points in world history were not because there was hatred, differences etc amongst these seers. In fact they were forced to lay down different social norms simply because the requirements during various phases of world history required specific norms for each and every phase.

The basis of past progress, analysis of downfall and goal setting for the future is an intellect which yearns for facts and reality. In spiritual parlance it is called Ritambhara. According to Brahman scriptures this is what Prajapati says while elucidating Divine Wisdom or Self Realization: When during cosmic annihilation (Pralaya) everything in this world is destroyed at that time too one Rishi remains alive to reveal the truth. His name is ‘Tarka’. Over here Tarka is not some dry and superficial argument but it is a divine intellect full of profound wisdom. It is with its help that one can attain Self Realization. An intellect that is open to accept truth shies away from prejudiced fanatical beliefs. The wheel of time is such that situations faced by us all are bound to change again and again. And it is because of this that the methods of solving various problems too change when situations change. No doubt we revere saints and seers of the past and the spiritual endeavors demarcated by them. And yet it is not necessary that these endeavors can help in today’s times since situations of those times and today differ a great deal. Hence it is most required that spiritual practices of those times that can be used today be imbibed wholeheartedly and renounce those which are not suitable for modern times (but were apt for past times).

As mentioned previously in the Middle Age of darkness and ignorance a lot of distortions plagued the spiritual arena. Such disparity was seen in the principles, methods and social execution of Spiritual Philosophy that even a common thinking intellect would refuse to trust its veracity and utility. In the dark Middle Age sacred scriptures got ‘adulterated’ so as to say. This resulted in the degradation of the lives of so called religious and spiritual “leaders”. Thus majority of world humanity rightly refused to trust them and follow in their footsteps.

There was a time many centuries back when Rishis’ speech and the sacred gospel of our scriptures were thought to be beyond doubt. Today because intellectualism and logic/proof is the in thing, scriptural precepts will not be gulped down solely on the basis of faith. The philosophy of faith can only be reinstated today on the firm foundation of its utility, proof and veracity. Today the need of the hour is that the principles and day to day execution of Spiritual Science be put forth in a form that is wholesome and acceptable to this present generation of the Computer Age. Those very spiritual tenets faithfully and wholeheartedly imbibed by seers of yore must be presented today in a manner that is acceptable to the highly intellectual human beings of modern times. The gist of the teachings of great thinkers and sages of ancient times is unanimous wherein human beings love each other selflessly, imbibe the wealth of sacred thinking, grow the flowers of wholesome actions and develop a great character. How will al this happen? The answer is one without a second and that is faith towards Spiritual Sciences be imbibed deeply in ones psyche.

For this a 2-pronged effort has been designed wherein distortions that have entered Spiritual Science are being rooted out and to prove with sound scientific arguments the futility to pursue materialism that does not have a firm substratum of spiritual values. For this in the gigantic library of the Brahmavarchas Research Institute’s highly experienced scholars are re-analyzing every religious scripture in a scientific manner. Every scripture is scrutinized minutely for its useful tenets and without any prejudice or bias renounce all precepts that are not useful/applicable in today’s 21st century. We must have deep faith that just as when the mythological churning of the ocean took place and 14 jewels emerged from it so too our scientific research will definitely unearth those spiritual jewels that will be acceptable the world over.

It is also the need of the hour to combat the rat race like material pursuits (one could say it is a by product of Modern Science) devoid of spiritual and human values. The very foundation of ethics has been shattered because of laying emphasis solely on direct visible proof and material utility. Die hard materialists refuse to accept the existence of the soul and God. As a result the attitude of ‘why even deign to think about good deeds/merits, spiritual goals, renunciation, sacrifice etc’? Charvak said: Rinam Kritvaa Gridham Pibait. It means keep borrowing money and thus eat, drink and be merry. He also said: Yena Kena Prakaarena, Yaavajjeevait Sukham Jeevait. It means beg, borrow or steal and continue to live a life of sense merriment. If one looks around and analyzes the life style of the highly materialistic intellectual class it certainly appears as though they are hell bent on proving Charvak right. When scientific research proves everything on the basis of proof collected from ones sense organs, mind and intellect why should not life’s philosophy be erected on the foundation stone of selfishness? The results of such erroneous thinking stares starkly in our face wherein every area of our life predominates with narrow minded selfishness, lack of magnanimity and generosity and hard heartedness. There is no other cause for this apart from our lack of faith in the importance of spiritual values and tenets. How can it be warded off? The answer is unanimous in that faith in spiritual values must be reinstated in the psyche of world humanity on a firm footing. And this is possible only by imbibing the sacred precepts of Spiritual Sciences.

Spirituality can be imbued with new vigor only by 1) destroying distortions that have entered spirituality and 2) reinstating the philosophy of aspiring for greatness which is being ignored today by those who pursue rank materialism devoid of spiritual and human values. It is hence that the gigantic Research Institute called Brahmavarchas has been established. The highly intellectual class of this Computer Age can only be convinced by giving philosophical answers to philosophy, scientific answers to science and logical answers to logic. Atheism is ruling the roost today simply because spiritual principles have not been presented via sound scientific proof and logic. One can safely say that Modern Sciences’ principles that rely on proof only is not the major cause of people scoffing the existence of the soul, God, fruits of ones actions, spiritual goals etc. Instead the root cause is that till today we have failed to present Spiritual Sciences laced with ample scientific proof and logic.

In order to fulfill this all important goal Brahmavarchas Research Institute has been set up as a all round centre of scientific research. No doubt our beginning is dwarfish yet the potential of it becoming gigantic and all pervasive is very high. We have sown a powerful seed and without doubt it is not the end. It is a gigantic task to test Spiritual Science’s principle on the basis of sound scientific logic and proof. And hence gigantic means that include a well equipped high profiled laboratory are most required. Over here there are 2 options. The first one wherein wait for high leveled means and then start research activities. The second is make-do with the limited means available at present and commence research studies on a war like footing. We realized that it is not possible to stop research just because all the required means are not available. A delay would mean not helping in the obstruction of world humanity’s imminent spiritual and material downfall. Hence it is important that without delay we prove the authentic nature of spiritual values via scientific research and only then will the highly intellectual class of the world accept it and imbibe it to the fullest. Brahmavarchas Research Institute’s wheels are on a roll and the train of research studies has started moving slowly but surely.

Research studies have 2 aspects viz. literature based research and experimentation in a well equipped laboratory. A gigantic collection of literature in our high profile library that includes religions of all nations of the world, books of great thinkers and philosophers of the world covering areas of Science, Philosophy, Psychology, Parapsychology, Sociology etc will help fulfill our requirement of scientific as well as a philosophic method of scientific analysis. Further spiritual practices will be scientifically tested in our laboratory that is equipped with advanced scientific apparatus and technology. We are analyzing the effect of Mantras, Japa and Yajna on human beings, other creatures and plants. It is no secret that today man’s bodily, mental and spiritual health is fast deteriorating. Various medical therapies like Allopathy, Homeopathy and Ayurveda are not weeding out diseases from their very roots. Under such dire circumstances what is required is that we unearth a mode of therapy which gives us sound bodily, mental and spiritual health for keeps.

The Science of Yajna or Yajnopathy is being given a firm and strong foundation. We are constantly in touch with well known scientists and medical specialists so as to reap rich dividends from our research. We must all have faith that in the near future Yajnopathy will bloom forth in its total healthy and all encompassing form. Thus it will serve entire world humanity both materially and spiritually.

Literature based research study has many aspects. And yet chief amongst them are Science and Philosophy. This era demands that spiritual and human values be given prime importance. Hence 4 main topics with reference to them have been taken up for research studies. They are: 1) Inter Faith Understanding and Equality, 2) Cosmic Consciousness and Cosmic Nature, 3) Science of True Thinking and 4) Yajna based therapy. In the subsequent phase of our research other topics too will be studied minutely.

1) Inter Faith Understanding and Equality: In order that every world religion is given utmost honor and respect 14 golden aphorisms have been elucidated that are accepted by all religions. They will encompass the religious discourses, rites/rituals and traditions of religions like Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism, Parsi, Christianity, Jainism, Buddhism, Jew and Taoism. In order to make individuals and world society great and pious in character ethics, human/spiritual values, discipline and wholesome social behavior have been taken up for study purposes.

2) Cosmic Consciousness and Cosmic Nature: We are deeply studying material nature, the subtle atom, special qualities of the gigantic cosmos and the mysterious layers of human (microcosm) and cosmic (macrocosm) consciousness. Serious research is being carried out into the scientific basis of the awakening of Extrasensory Potential (ESP). In addition the question of how could one ‘contact’ cosmic consciousness and imbibe their Divine Powers is being researched into. Within this topic the various branches of Modern Science are being studied and on its basis soul scientific principles will be put forth.

3) Science of True Thinking: All those principles and theories of Psychology and Philosophy are being studied deeply that are strongly related to man’s very thinking process. The Science of Thinking includes research studies on reflection, faith, trust, sensitivity etc that designs man’s inner personality and character. A psychological study of devotion, meditation, prayer and mental focus/concentration too has been taken up by us.

4) Yajna based therapy: It encompasses the scientific application and utility of Yajna, its influence on our body and psyche and what is its philosophical basis.

We must imbibe deep faith that soul based principles stand on the firm foundation of spirituality. In addition they are omnipotent enough to ward off all attacks made by atheistic units. What can we achieve by ‘defeating’ that path which has yet to be imbibed totally and which yet has no followers or propagators? In the court of intellectualism theism tasted defeat simply because theistic propagators did not take up the challenges thrown by their modern intellectual counterparts and instead insisted on saving theism with the slogan: Have faith in God! If only they had answered logic with counter logic, precepts with counter precepts, proof with counter proof etc theism would have succeeded in defeating hard core intellectuals in their own court. But alas this was not to be and theism was relegated to an ethical downfall and psychic inertia. This is the reason why Spiritual Science over the years beat a hasty retreat to its downfall. And yet there is no need to despair because today scientific research on Spiritual Sciences will help regain eternally its lost glory.

In reality Spiritual Principles are such that the basis of human joy, peace, progress and prosperity remain on a solid footing. The problem is only one wherein the complexity of what is true and false is so enormous that it is very difficult to understand the true meaning of their precepts along with its application in day to day life. Gold is purified via a blazing fire. Similarly spiritual teachings too will be heated in such a manner so as to transform them into that form which can be understood easily by even a layman and thus will be conducive to imbibe in ones daily professional, social etc life. The probability to achieve this goal via a positive transformation of Spiritual Philosophy indeed is very high. We must have faith via the research endeavor of Brahmavarchas Research Institute that all encompassing form of Spiritual Philosophy will be presented to the world wherein there will be no room for differences and doubts. Only modern scientific research can ward off obstacles faced by theism and reinstating of spiritual values in our day to day life. Only those principles that are heated in the furnace of research and tested for sound proof and logic will prove to be true and useful both materially and spiritually. Without this the highly intellectual class of the world cannot be wooed to imbibe spiritual tenets.



By: Yuga Rishi Shriram Sharma Acharya

About the Author:

No country is against the development of science and scientific research.

It has been recognized by everyone that without science there is no development.

Therefore, promotion of scientific research in all area is taken up seriously.

Research both in basic and applied sciences is essential to achieve national and international developments.

In fact, basic science is costly as compared to the applied science.

In a recent article on science for sustainable development published in Current Science (Curr. Sci.) Dr. I. P. Abrol mentioned that low level of funding is frequently cited as one of the major factors for the declining state of science in India.

Not only Dr. Abrol, many other Indian scientists used to tell the same ‘low level funding’ for the poor science in India.

It was the state of affair once, but now the situation is considerable improved.

All branches of science, agriculture, engineering, medicine, veterinary, biotechnology, nanotechnology, information technology do not suffer from ‘low level of funding’ nowadays.

In fact, most of the research institutions are not able to spend the allocated fund for scientific research in time.

Anyway much of the fund goes for salaries, some for the upkeep of the building and other infrastructures and the rest only is used for scientific research.

In the name of research projects funded by various foreign agencies and also the Government of India itself, amounts to over funding sometimes.

I still remember some of the World Bank funded projects in Agricultural Sciences.

Crores of rupees allotted to Agricultural Universities and National Agricultural Research Institutes.

In addition to it large number of projects in the name of National Fellows and Professor of Eminence are also in place.

Plenty of money for science, but no one appears to appreciate these good days of science.

We are certainly well off as far as the funding position for science is concerned.

We all know that the project fund is mostly spent for buying costly equipments which are invariably imported from foreign countries.

These instruments cost lakhs of rupees.

So, there are series of procedures to be followed for buying these equipments.

Tenders are called, opened, compared, placed orders, credited the amount in a bank and finally received the instruments.

Sometimes the scientist who placed order forgets to include a small piece of accessory for operating or maintaining the instrument.

While the instrument is installed, such mistakes are found out and intimated to the scientist by the installing engineers of the Sales Company.

They start thinking about the mistake so late and make a representation to the funding agency to sanction additional amount required for the missed accessory.

It take awful lot of time to get a positive reply, till then the instrument remains as a dead elephant in a corner of the laboratory which are not generally rat-proof and not even air- conditioned.

By that time the sanction for the additional amount reaches, and the accessory bought, the main instrument is damaged by rats which are fond of the pleasant smell of the plastic wires and chips attached within the instrument.

What I describe here may look like a story, but it is really not a fiction, but a fact which is always untold, kept secret and hidden.

Generally, no one question our scientists because they are in a higher scale of pay and position enjoying the perquisites offered by the government.

By that time, the senior scientist either retires or gets transferred to another institute.

The poor equipment becomes an orphan and no one takes care of it in that non-working condition.

Thus the fund for science is wasted once for all.

These dreams are known to the administrative officers and the comptrollers.

They try to underestimate the credibility of the scientists.

But that is generally taken as professional jealousy.

Anyway this is one side of the whole affair.

In the other side, the allotted fund is not properly released to the scientist to spend for his project unless and until he meets the administrative rules for buying the equipment.

If the Director or the administrative officer does not like a particular scientist, then the story becomes very serious.

Thus the fund is not spent within the stipulated time of the famous March end.

Knowing such difficulties scientists try to spend the allotted fund urgently by placing orders for easily available items such as steel almyrahs, fans, air-conditioners, refrigerators, plastic chairs, hot plates, room heaters, computers etc., etc.,

When I was a student and later a staff I could see truck loads of steel almyrahs, book cases, and refrigerators unloaded in science departments towards the end of March every year.

It looked very strange to me, but later on I could understand the circumstances under which they are bought.

Funding science is done by every government every year.

Who looks into the spending aspects of the funds?

Also who looks into the scientific research results due to such levels of funding?

The spending aspect is always looked into by the auditors checking the bills, dates and the correctness of spending according to the government audit rules.

The scientific research based on the funding and the equipments are not strictly monitored, although it is said that there are many committees established for this sake.

The outcome of scientific findings should have a direct bearing on the fund spent and the scientific instruments used.

But invariably most of the scientific research ends up in reports and publications either in Indian journals or in few so called international journals which are very rarely read by other scientists.

Sustainable science activity is desired by retired scientists, but I doubt that is possible to achieve.

Most of the scientific researchers are fed up over time and their thinking is outmoded.

They started with a sharp thinking in handling problems basic or applied, but over time their thinking lose the sharpness.

If you talk to any senior or junior scientists today, they spend more time in discussing their administrative difficulties rather than their scientific output.

Even if they talk about their outputs which will be a repetitive work or some one’s results confirmed.

These are facts every one of us – scientists – fully know.

Some of these facts are fashionably written in Curr. Sci. published by Indian Academy of Sciences.

When I read those comments, I feel very sad because this journal is found in libraries of almost all Universities of the world and also in the net free of cost.

The publishers of Curr. Sci. escapes cleverly saying that all articles published in Curr. Sci. especially editorials, opinions and commentaries, letters and book reviews are deemed to reflect the individual views of the authors and not the official points of view, either of the Current Science Association or of the Indian Academy Sciences.

Those who read Curr. Sci. journal knows very well the views of various scientists expressed in the ‘Correspondence’ section.

Exposing the setbacks in scientific world of India is a welcome step, but I do not know by doing so how many are rectified so far?

All the setbacks expressed make good reading, sometimes they are funny too.

The contents of the Correspondence section continue to be the same setbacks for the past decades and I hope it may be for the future decades too.

In a country like India, science and scientific research are not treated the way they have to be treated.

They are in the hands of the auditors who are not scientists but they count the money not the outcome of science.

In their eyes, whether one is scientist, business man or anybody – all are thieves.

Their job is only to find out the mistakes committed in spending the fund.

They do not know some of those mistakes are to be committed to carry out scientific research.

But who has to change the Government Secretariat administration which is still the same inherited from the British?

A new administration is absolutely needed for scientific institutions for better utilization of fund.

Indian science will remain with the same setbacks of the past decades forever if we follow the same set of account rules.

I feel it is an urgent matter the science administrators of Government of India have to look into seriously for the benefit of science in India.



By: NARA

About the Author:

One need not make any extensive surveys of different media to provide evidence for this failure. It is enough to see how sports has managed to gain more coverage in various media over the last few decades vis-a-vis science. One may argue that this is so because there are always some sports events occurring all over the world which naturally draw the attention of media. But contention here is that scientific activity, scientific community and laboratories all over the world can also be turned into what are called ‘media events’ if enough pains are taken by science communicators to achieve this status for science. First and foremost it will require the maximum cooperation of scientists.

For instance, anniversaries of scientists, institutes, organisations and societies, including the World Health Day, etc., can be celebrated; discussions and debates with the concerned scientists organised; and doors of concerned laboratories and organisations thrown open to masses and media.

Be that as it may, intention through this paper is to highlight the essentials and limitations of science popularisation so that there appears a fundamental change in the way of looking at this subject. Hopefully, it will lead to more effective strategies to popularise science among the masses.

Science writing is an art

Science popularisation is mostly done by science- trained persons and professional scientists. It is therefore looked upon more as a scientific activity rather than anything else. But science writing is more of an art rather than a science. It is scientific only in the sense one should have scientific knowledge but all the writing abilities are required to make a good presentation of science. It is due to the present lack of emphasis on the art aspect of science popularisation that this field of activity has suffered to date. Those few scientists or science-trained persons who have consciously or unconsciously known the art of science writing and have practised it, have only been successful in popularising science.

Science is a human activity

The second reason why popular science does not tick with the masses is because it is not projected as a human activity but an activity of scientists who simply believe in the search for truth – and nothing but truth! The human side of science is totally neglected in all popular science presentations. The follies and prejudices of scientists, the emotional life of scientists, the irrational circumstances in which scientific work is often undertaken and discoveries and inventions made, etc., are quite often deliberately not highlighted fearing that it would give bad name to science and scientific research. In short, the human face of science or scientific research is often neglected in popular science presentations. There is therefore a strong need to give science a human face. It would not only mean adding human stories to popular science presentations but also talking about realities in scientific research.

Tip of the iceberg presentation

The third reason why popular science presentations often go wide off the mark and make the audience yawn and go for something else is the inability of science communicators to distinguish between technical report writing and popular science writing, thanks to their scientific training or background. They try to cram into a popular science presentation as much as they know or find out about a subject.

Actually, popular science presentation should be like the tip of the iceberg. It should however make one not only familiar with the tip of the iceberg but also aware of the unseen larger part of the iceberg floating under the water. In other words, it should reveal little about science but enough to make one realise the existence of that science with its entire ramification. It should excite one’s curiosity enough so that one would like to probe further into that science. It should not necessarily tell everything about a science but at the same time it should not miss science.

Some important observations

The author’s experience with popularising science over the years has forced him to arrive at some postulates. They are merely based on experience and intuition. Any research has not been conducted to back them up with facts and figures. In fact, much research is required to prove or disprove them. If in case they are proved, they can easily be called the ‘Laws of Science Popularisation’ because despite the best of our efforts we have not been able to popularise science the way we want among the masses. There must be some hidden laws governing our efforts to popularise science. These postulates are stated as follows:

Postulates of science popularisation

1st : Only those elements of science receive attention in a society, which suit its goals or which inspire awe.

2nd : A science communicator tends to impose his or her limited ideas of science, scientists and scientific research upon the audience.

3rd : The amount of space allotted to science in different media of a country is the index of the quality of life of its average citizen.

4th : The quality of science communication or presentation in a country is directly proportional to the quality of science produced in it.

5th : To popularise science is to humanise science.

One can deduce certain things from these postulates. The first postulate indicates that people at large read science because it serves their purpose or because the subject is topical, sensational or controversial or simply excites their curiosity. A handful only read science for the sake of knowledge per se. Much research is required to identify those subjects so that science could be more effectively popularised. For instance, health science and environment interest people at large, astronomy and space fascinate them, Nobel Laureates, UFOs, etc., are held in awe by them.

The Second postulate is dangerous for science itself. Consciously or unconsciously, the layman imbibes the limited or narrow image of science, scientists and culture of science from the communicator, whether he be Jacob Bronowski or Peter Medawar. Notions such as scientists are mad individuals or scientific research is yet another profession are creations of science communicators. That makes science communicator a very responsible person.

The third and fourth postulates are intuitive relationships between two unrelated things or activities. Further research is needed to prove or disprove these two laws by taking data from different countries. However, one must add here that in India we raise a hullabaloo to increase science coverage in our media at the first available opportunity but it often comes to nothing. Also, while writing a popular science article on a subject one often needs the assistance of a scientist doing research in that very subject. But in India the scientist of the concerned subject is often not available for consultation and as a result our writings lack the necessary quality, verve and colour.

The fifth, the last but not the least important postulate, though obvious, reminds us that we must give science a human face so that masses are not afraid of it. It is the basic aim of science popularisation.

Christmas tree of science popularisation

The aim of drawing the ‘Christmas tree of science popularisation’ is to illustrate the importance of various media that take science to the masses, though every medium has its own significance and a vital role to play in communication. But unless a person climbs up the tree, as his or her interest in science is aroused or increased – in other words, unless one begins to read newspapers, magazines and then books – he or she would not have become fully science literate.

Necessarily, the percentage of people reading books would be very small as the top of a Christmas tree indicates. But it is a must to know this tree because the role of any medium should not be underestimated and every medium should be given equal importance simultaneously. For instance, if a student’s interest in science is aroused by science fair or ‘Jatha’ held in the town, it has to be sustained and maintained by wallpapers, newspapers and even books; otherwise, one’s interest would flag and eventually die. Other supplementing media should be made available to the student in form of public libraries, for instance. So, the Christmas tree of science popularisation needs to be watered and tended carefully to produce a science literate society.

Conclusion

According to the postulates forwarded here there are (as yet unknown) limits to the extent science can be popularised among the masses. It is not possible to have a fully science literate society. Moreover, science communicators need to take into account aforementioned aspects about science popularisation for more effective communication of science to the masses.

ProVFX Visual Effects and Editing School has been written by Pranay Rupani who is a Freelance Writer



By: Pranay Rupani

About the Author:

COGNITIVE SCIENCE – NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE

            Many people reading this article may not be familiar with the term ‘Cognitive Science’. But the term ‘Artificial Intelligence’ may sound familiar, as its often heard term and its a booming research area. ‘Cognitive Science’ may be considered as opposite of ‘Artificial Intelligence’, as former deals with study of intelligence in human ,where as  later deals with intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science which aims to create it.

            Cognitive science, the term was coined by Christopeher Longuet – Higgins in 1973. It is an interdisciplinary field. The interdisciplines are Psychology, Neuro science, Linguistics, Philosophy of mind, Computer Science, Anthropology, Biology and Physics. The objective of Cognitive Science is to attain a complete understanding of the mind/brain and its processes.

            Attaining the complete understanding of the mind/brain is not possible by single level analysis.  As the field is highly interdisciplinary, research often draws research methods from different fields such as Psychology , Neuro Science , Computer Science etc., Any of the research methods on their own would not fully explain the process of brain. The relational study of the outcomes of the researches can give a clear picture of process of brain, but to its limits.

            Consider the problem of remembering a phone number and recalling it later. The problem can be approached in many ways. Two of the ways are explained here. One approach is to study the behavior through direct observation i.e. accuracy of the response could be measured when the phone number is recalled by the person. Another approach is to study the working of individual neurons while the person is recalling the phone number. Neither of the approach on their own would solve the problem completely, as discussed before.

            Cognitive Science has yielded a multitude of practical applications. The area of Robotics has seen the development of new and more sophisticated robots capable of executing complex tasks, thus making a positive economic impact. Advances in Neuro science often result in new treatments for disorders such as Autism, Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease. Cognitive theories in Psychology have provided new therapies for the treatment of anxiety and depression. Cognitive insights have also created an impact in education having led to new methods in the teaching of reading, writing and other subjects.

           Thus concentrating more on this field of research can yield much better outcomes to improve our society both economically and psychologically.

             



By: Preetha Lakshmi

About the Author:

I was under the impression they were supposed to be cool science projects, but I just could never get the hang of them. I feel so fortunate to have come across the secret to the coolest projects…

I can still vividly remember the look of disapointment on Bens face. It was my first try at planning a science fair project, but still I really upset my son. I sill feel sad about the whole thing.

It all went wrong and it was all my fault. If I hadn’t thought I could be clever and get a free science project online, none of this would have happened. All that time spent planning and preparing, and still a complete faliure…

The free project I grabbed off the Internet was absolutely awful! It seemed that everything that could go wrong, went wrong. The water and salt speedily became insoluble, the balloons burst leaving my kitchen in a awful mess, and I’m not even gonna go into the price of the materials for the experiment.

Thats when the state of affairs elevated. Ok so considering my prior faliure, I went back on the internet and purchased a science package this time. What a complete waste of time and money! I paid $25 for the kit and it was completly useless, they gave us nothing of real value. Oh it was just awful! All they did give was details to a really boring science project and a list of materials adding up to another $40!

The other day I was reading thru a couple of articles on a site that I go to often, when I saw an advertisement. It read: Earn money for charity by writing an article about your experience’s with science projects! So I emailed them and said: Hi, I saw your ad and would love to offer my experience and extend advice to other parentd. So here I am.

So lets think for a moment, for the science project we need a…

• Purpose

• Hypothesis

• Supplies

• Procedure

• Data

• Results

• Conclusion

• Research

Now thats hard work, believe me!

But check this out – I recently found a great way to take the pain away. It puts us all in a unique position of being able to actually enjoy ourselves, whilst helping our kids learn science. And for me thats what these science fair projects should be about; associating fun with learning. You see, I never realized this, but these are the most important years of our child’s life. Why? Because at this age they’re minds are extremely susceptible to the emotions that they feel. All we need to do is increase that link between fun and learning and I’m told our kids are guaranteed to achieve more in later life; as they will grow up loving to learn.

What I found even more amazing was that in goes so much further than this. It is now believed that it has good effects in other parts of their lives as well. Not only will they become more acadmically active they will also become better in social situations. Wow!

A few weeks ago the time for preparation for the science fair finally arrived. My son came to me at the breakfast table and said, “Mom can we do a fun science projects this year”? I told him I would make sure we do. Yet I had no idea how I would make it happen considering I could no longer rely on the internet! A couple of days past and I was really nervous. I couldn’t find anything off line that looked as if it would actually work. And the idea of it going wrong again was eating me inside.

Well I was very impressed with the kit. It gave us the detailed explanation to a winning science project and it all worked out great!

Well, thats it, my search is over I have to say I was thoroughly disappointed with most of what I found, and I advice you to exercise extreme caution before investing time and money into a science project! Whatever you do, I wish you and your kid a fun and healthy year to come.



By: diane

About the Author:

Writing a science dissertation in word presentation has to be a formal piece of dissertation writing. When writing a science dissertation one should have good knowledge about the topic that is going to be researched. It is better to make a complete plan of the entire process in advance. It is important for a science dissertation in a word presentation to carry good and practical experiments and examples as well. In a science dissertation one has to demonstrate critical and analytical thinking and with precise and already proven concepts.

A science dissertation should also include science terminology. All sentences have to be clear and precise. In addition a science dissertation has to be a serious piece of work with no room for jokes and humor or any form of informal language.

A science dissertation in word presentation should be written in a logical and consistent manner. Only verified facts should be used throughout the work. Most importantly, a science dissertation in word presentation has to be very systematic and concise and should not discuss circumstances or issues. However, if certain experiments mentioned in the dissertation were not performed under normal circumstances special notes or footnotes should be added.

Special care should be taken when writing the conclusion of a science dissertation as the entire work should be based on real solid facts. Similarly in a dissertation science sport all experiments should be factual and complete. A dissertation science sport in word presentation should include relevant figures and diagrams as it improves the understanding. The research process involved in writing a dissertation science sport may not be very different from other subjects. However, the methodology and results make a dissertation science sport different! That’s because it must have a different approach. For example a baseball dissertation and a football dissertation can both involve a lot of hard work and research, but it’s the research question that has to be addressed in conjunction with the most appropriate methodology that proves a lot from it’s result and findings!



By: Robert Jack

About the Author:

Have you ever wondered why students and parents alike dislike 4th grade science projects so strongly? Once again, we look forward to the mandatory and yearly stunning displays of the 4th grade science project. Why are these assigned, are they actually a requirement, and what is the point in doing an 4th grade science project? These questions and many more are often the fuel used to light fires by parents all over, because they seem to lack an understanding of the need for an 4th grade science project.

If you stop for a moment and take a look at what the main excuse is for not having a 4th grade science project turned in on time, you may be surprised to find that most parents are in fact guilty of taking over their child’s(rens) 4th grade science project in an attempt to turn it in on time. Most of this dislike of 4th grade science projects is due in part from a lack of adhering to the schedule set by their instructors, which allows them to end up late for everything and rushing at the last minute to create an 4th grade science project that was spanned over several months, into one night before it is due. By allowing this reaction to an 4th grade science project to become normal behavior, we are, in essence, setting ourselves up for future disasters by creating mindless generations that have no understanding of how to organize, plan, exert effort, and use their brains.

We are teaching our children, by allowing them to procrastinate, when it comes to their 4th grade science project that it is all right to let things slide, to plan for another day because we do not feel like doing something today. Not only are the children who are supposed to be doing the 4th grade science project, being given a bad example, but also they are being shown that no matter what mistakes they make, their mom and dad will do the work for them — regardless of the consequences.

A bit dramatic to make as a statement from why children have been lazy in the past when it comes to completing a 4th grade science project? I think not. It is our duty as parents to encourage our children to do their best in all their endeavors, even the 4th grade science project, and everything else in life. We never know when that one action we encouraged could lead to their main future direction. Ultimately, the way we allow our children to develop, even from completing an 4th grade science project, is the kind of adults we are encouraging them to be. Do we have secret desires for our children to end up as bums on the street? Perhaps we would prefer them to have no jobs for the duration of their adult life. These statements are not only ridiculous, but they hold no weight as being valid either.

We all want the best for our children, and if it means suffering through complaints and sighs of frustration until we have taught them the importance of the 4th grade science project, and how it will affect their outlook on life, then so be it.



By: diane

About the Author:

 

The Inductive Method of Science

Science adopts the Aristotelian, inductive method to move from the particular to the general, rather like assembling individual pieces of a jigsaw puzzle: discrete observational data are collected and gradually fitted into a general picture, the latter being a mental representational model of the physical effects observed. The mind process is predominantly intellectual, applied in a linear mode. The instruments of investigation are limited to, and conditioned by, the five physical senses and their extensions, as telescopes and microscopes, etc. The result is a precise description of the appearances, behaviour and physical mechanisms of the Universe—Nature in her manifold appearances. The prevailing scientific paradigm of materialism has many unsupported and unsubstantiated assumptions. Physical or mathematical modelling are central features of the scientific method of inquiry. This means that science itself is not about truth or knowledge, per se—rather an interpretation of the physical world.

The Deductive Approach of Occult Science

By contrast, Occult Science works in the Platonic tradition of moving from the general to the particular within the Ring Pass-Not (i.e. limiting boundaries of evolutionary growth) of every world system: the overall, grand picture is first realized in its essential nature, and the way this presents itself as particular effects then expounded. The mind process is essentially ‘lateral thinking’ and intuitive, applied in an all-inclusive mode. The instruments of investigation are not limited to the physical senses. This gives profound insights into the origin, essential nature and manifestation of Nature in her true self.

CONFLUENCE BETWEEN SCIENCE AND OCCULT SCIENCE

Why Many Scientists Are Also Embracing Mysticism

These days we find increasing numbers of scientists turning towards mysticism as a complement to the rational scientific method. A review of the world-wide Directory of Members of The Scientific and Medical Network will indicate this fact. Furthermore, teachers and students at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have formed an alchemical society and regularly study The Secret Doctrine. During Millikan’s tenure at Cal Tech, a copy of The Secret Doctrine lodged in the library was so much in demand that one had to put one’s name on a long waiting list. This work is also discussed periodically at the Harvard Club in New York by several chemistry teachers, including MIT professors.

Why then, such an upsurge in interest in mysticism and occult science? We explained above that in investigating something by the scientific method, we can describe its appearance, behaviour and characteristics by standing apart from it (the discoveries from quantum physics notwithstanding). But by the occult approach in order to understand its inner nature, we have literally to become the very thing we wish to investigate—or at least to participate in it. This is why the occult system always operates from within to without, and prefers to investigate Nature by participating with her processes, rather than interrogating her outward behaviour.

It is by virtue of such interior insights that Blavatsky was able to make prophetic remarks in The Secret Doctrine about future developments in natural science, for example:

The wave motion of living particles becomes comprehensible on the theory of a spiritual ONE LIFE, of a universal Vital principle, independent of our matter, and manifesting as atomic energy only on our plane of consciousness.

The above statement displays foreknowledge about three facts that are now commonly accepted by science, namely: (a) the energy within the atom; (b) the wave-like nature of particles, and the particle-like nature of waves; and (c) the vitality and ‘consciousness’ of particles. Blavatsky was in all probability the first person to use the terms ‘atomic energy’ and the ‘wave motion of living particles’, which science has discovered for itself, using its own methods of investigation.

In the field of life sciences, we find similar portentous statements, such as:

It is not against zoological and anthropological discoveries, based on the fossils of man and animal, that every mystic and believer in a divine soul inwardly revolts, but only against the uncalled-for conclusions built on preconceived theories and made to fit in with certain prejudices.

Driven inexorably by the pressure of their own discoveries, and increasingly inconsistent theories to account for them, scientists are slowly awakening to the truth of Blavatsky’s assertion. This will soon become apparent.

Hence in view of the foregoing, it is not surprising that the greatest scientists, past and present, have realized the limits of the process of scientific inquiry and sensed the need for more intuitive approaches.



By: Edi Bilimoria

About the Author:

Science is a fascinating subject, which the kids can love only if it is presented in an interesting way. Moreover, science is a subject, which should not just be taught from the textbook but also supplemented with practical sessions to demonstrate scientific principles. As students most of the kids who dislike science lessons are drawn to it owing to the practical sessions during which it is possible for the children to see the results of scientific experiments on their own.

In case you want your child to explore the field of science on their own, then here are some simple science experiments that you can encourage your child to perform. There are also various scientific experiment kits or sets, which provide the basic chemicals, apparatus and other requirements for the children to perform the experiments. In case you don’t want to buy these science kits, there still exist a lot of experiments, which can be carried out at home using simple things easily available at home.

Fun Science Experiments

Here I have compiled some easy and fun science experiments, which can be easily demonstrated to and even performed by the kids. Most of these experiments can be performed at home with little supervision and help from the parents. Go ahead and pick an experiment, which would not only be a fun experience for the child but also a great way to learn basic scientific principles.

Easy Science Experiment 1# Development of a Seed

Requirements: Seeds of any plant, a gardening pot, fertile and moist gardening soil and water.

Procedure: One of the most basic and easy experiments for children is growing a plant from seeds. All you need to do is take a small cup or a pot of convenient size and material. Add some moist fertile soil from the garden into the pot. Place some seeds into the pot and ask the child to water it regularly. Place the cup or the pot in sunlight so that the seeds get enough exposure to the sunlight.

Things to Learn: The children will enjoy the offshoots and development of roots from the seed and it will also be a great learning experience for the child. Teach the child how water, soil, sunlight, and seeds are necessary for the creation and growth of a plant. You can extend the teaching session by introducing the children to the various parts of the plant – starting from the root, stem, leaves, and even flower and fruits.

Easy Science Experiment 2# Static Electricity

Requirements: a hard plastic comb, or a balloon, thread, pieces of dry cereal.

Procedure: Just tie a piece of the cereal to one end of a piece of thread. Find a place to attach the other end of the thread. Just tape the thread to the edge of a desk. Make sure that the comb is really clean and free from any dirt and oil. Now just rub the comb through long dry hair or a woolen blanket so that it gets charged with static electricity owing to the friction. Now slowly bring the comb near the cereal. The cereal piece tied to the thread will swing to touch the comb. Hold it until the cereal moves away by itself. The cereal will tend to move away from the comb now.

Things to Learn: The thing to be learnt by the children is that combing the hair caused the electrons to be transferred from the hair to the comb. Since the comb was negatively charged with static electricity, the neutral cereal was attracted to it. When the cereal touched the comb, electrons were transferred to the cereal resulting in transfer of negative charge. Thus since both the comb and the cereal were negatively charged after a while, it led to repulsion.

Visit http://www.project-science-fair.com/ for more details.



By: diane

About the Author:

Science and technology education are co-related with each other and cannot be separated to gain the real meaning and essence of science education. From last many years, science education has seen numerous changes and transformations to pass on the true value of scientific theories and strategies.

It is very true that the science is nothing without the study of technology. In other words, it is not wrong to say that the combination is just like soul without the body. Interestingly, major accomplishments in science are always accompanied by right usage and applications of technology. As a result, for getting a complete science education, a person needs to be committed towards gaining the right knowledge, content and processes of the subject.

Generally, science education involves teaching of the scientific body of knowledge, the processes and activities of scientific work. Therefore, for imparting the right knowledge and educations, science teachers must be clear about the concept. Also, they need to be influenced by several teaching techniques including the learning capabilities of students while interacting with physical materials.

An expert science tutor is the one who keeps a close eye on the digital development and the growing scientific nuances. He or she should have a formal education, training and qualification in formal science teaching and its techniques. These experts should have analytical ability and possess evaluation powers on developing information technology in the science curriculum.

Find a Science Tutor:

In this growing competitive world, science education has become really necessary. The subject has emerged as the backbone of the overall growth of a person and in order to earn a leading edge. Finding a good science tutor is not difficult at all. You can browse through the internet and find many tutors of different subjects. Try to know your child’s difficulty and problems while finding the most appropriate help for him or her.



By: Synapse India

About the Author:

SCIENCE OF METEOROLOGY

Quran Treats the phenonomenon of Rain and Hail

By

Allama Muhammad Yousuf Gabriel

www.oqasa.org

shaukatawan@rocketmail.com

The Quran has claimed not once but twice in most explicit terms to contain all knowledge that concerned humanity. And has challenged the world to bring a chapter like it, when I was asked that Quran was not the book of science, it was only the book of religion. How therefore, the treatment of the subjects like atomic science, the atomic bombs and atomic radiations could be expected in a book of religion. My answer to this was and is that the Quran is a book of a religion indeed, but it is the book of a religion that is perfect and complete and may be expected to provide answer to every question that was concerned with the humanity. If the destruction of the habitations of Sodom and Gomorrah received a mention in it, while these habitations were no larger than a negligible part of a modern city, how then the mention of a destroyer which would not leave so much as a blade of grass unburnt from one end of the world to the other, could be ignored without damaging the claim to universality. The Quran must be expected to give an answer to the question of atomic annihilation of the world. Again it may be asked whether the Quran contains the outcome of the research of modern science of meteorology. The answer to this question is yes it does. Quran shows this in one sign (Ayat) of about forty words. Read the following from the Quran regarding the phenomenon of rain and hail:-

” Hast thou not seen that Allah gently driveth forward the clouds and gathereth them together, and then layeth them in heaps? Thou also seeth the rain which falleth from the midst thereof, and Allah sendeth down from heaven, from mountains wherein there is hail, He striketh therewith whom he pleaseth, and turneth the same from whom He pleaseth, the brightness of His lightening wanteth but little of taking away the sight”.

( Quran XXIV – 43 )

” Have you not seen that God drives the clouds, then joins them together and puts them fold on fold. Then you see the rain fall through them; and He sends down hail from the sky where there are mountains of it, and strikes those with it whom. He will, and wards it off from whomsoever He pleaseth. His lightning could snatch away their eyes”.

(Quran – An-Nur-43 The Light)

You have read it now, or you have heard it. And if you pen to be a meteorologist, how much of the science of modern meteorology you have discerned in it, so that after we have explained it, you might compare. To most of the readers of the Quran it is merely a matter of common observation which has been mentioned by the Quran ; whether in the translation or in the original Arabic text of the Quran. Let this be remembered, however, that the mysteries are revealed only in the original Arabic text and never in the translations. It is the Arabic text of the Quran that reveals the essence of the modern science of meteorology about the phenomenon of rain and hail. Read the Quran -An Noor-43 )

In the first sight there appears to be no scientific facts of the modern research, but by the grace of Al-mighty Allah there are scientific facts to be revealed to those possessed of knowledge, and sincere in their faith in the Quran. The original Arabic text of the Quran has miracles to reveal. Most complex, intricate and perplexing facts of science and philosophy may be found in the words and mysteries discovered. To a knowledgeable reader the world of the Quran appears like kaleidoscopic world. The words changing their forms and clows and assuming new forms and colours, astonishing and perplexing the poor human intellect. During my forty-year long research in the Quran more than once I went to sleep with satisfaction that I had exhausted the meanings of a certain sign. But next morning to my surprise I saw the same sign blossoming with fresh flowers that had exchanging colours and delightful fragrance.

Let it be remembered that the modern science of meteorology is of recent origin, while the Quran was revealed fourteen centuries ago. If therefore the discoveries of the mo dern meteorology are found in the Quran, there remains no doubt about the divine original of the Quran, and the Quran deserves to assume a unique place among the divine scriptures.

We will now interpret the sign (Ayat) of the Quran in the light of all the latest discoveries of science in the field of meteorology. It is generally observed by the Non-Muslims, that whenever a discovery of science appears, the Muslims prop up the Quran saying, Lo! here is it written in the Quran, why the Muslims cannot find these facts from the Quran before the discovery is declared by science. The answer to this objection is, that firstly the Quran is not the text book of science to teach the people the technique of producing the things that are produced by the science, rather the Quran observes and regulates the entire life of humanity, every aspect of it. Therefore the Quran has its own style of treating the subject of pure science. Secondly, the Quran would not like the appearance of certain things or their wrong use in order to keep the humanity safe from the noxious effects thereof. Therefore the Quran treats such subjects of science in its peculiar manner. For instance the Quran has treated the atomic science, the entire essence of the subject, but has not taught to build the atomic bombs. Thirdly, if the Quran had explained the inventions of science as we see them today and had used the terms as we hear them today, it is not difficult to imagine that the hearers of that time, would have stampeded away thrusting their fingers in their ears, yelling, ” How impossible, how nonsensical, away, away to your rational creed, the creed of our fathers”. The fate of Islam was thus no hidden secret. And it was a miracle of the Quran, to say a thing comprehensible and appealing to its first hearers, and conceal within the same language that could answer all that was to come in time in any form, scientific, philosophic, economical, social. Yet let it be understood that the corroboration of the Quran and science is a topic fraught with imminent dangers. Science changes while the Quran is constant. Once said, for-ever said. The corroborator therefore must have thorough knowledge of science, to discern the established facts from more theories and hypotheses, and should at the same time have the thorough knowledge of the Quran to its real mind. Otherwise there is a great possibility of wrecking the reputation of the Quran, and making this word of God about of ridicule, unrecking at the same time the doom of the corroborator himself. I have seen many a corroborator that blundered in this field and fell from the cliffs to the vale of ignominy. God save us from such a doom. I myself am a corroborator, but I weigh a thing a hundred times and pass many a sleepless nights before I find courage to pen a single fact or to bring it on record. Yet I pray to Allah, the Merciful to guide me aright in this hazardous field and let me have no personal or other consideration, and forgive any slip of fall. I am obliged to take to this field for no other reason than that it has become the inevitable necessity of these days. Otherwise the early authentic commentators of the Quran have left no point unambiguous.

Now let us revert to our topic in the name of Allah the Benign, the Merciful. Allah says:-

“(Alam Tara). Has thou not seen?” This question was first posed to the Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) and his contemporary Arabs. Now it could be posed to the meteorologist. This is the marvellous feature of the All-time and eternal Quran.

Then :-

“(Annallaha Yuzji). That is God drives”. It is to contradict the view of those who think that the laws of nature work on their own, or that the whole affair of creation is accidental only. Here the God asserts his complete control of the Phenomenon.

Then (Yuzji Sahaban). (Sahab) means a cloud, but the derivatives formed on its root (sahaba) give the meanings as, to drive along, to drag along, to withdraw, to recall, to retract etc. The modern meteorological science on this point says, ” Previous to a thunderstorm, the clouds are in great commotion. Great masses being torn asunder, others uniting together. These clouds being electrified, some more some less strongly, act inductively on one another, and if a piece happens to be torn away with more than its fair share of electricity that has been induced into it, it may soar away intensely electrified, several such pieces may unite to form a big cloud”.

Then The Quran says:-

” (Thumma Yuallifu Bainahu). That is thereafter affects between the different parts of the cloud a harmony and achieves affinity between them. Generally it is translated as ” and gathereth them together”. In order to know what sort of harmony and affinity is affected and achieved between the various parts of the cloud, let us read the following from the science of meteorology.

” To achieve the coalescence of the minute spherules of water into fallable rain drops, a proper electrical affinity, between a particle and a particle within the cloud and further, within the cloud and the earth has to be achieved. In the presence of a strong positive charge in the cloud the SPHERULES WOULD TEND TOWARDS SEPARATION, EXCLUDING ANY POSSIBILITY OF THEIR COALESCENCE. A charge of milder sort in the vicinity has been found to be helpful for the desired coalescence for the spherules into rain drops. The necessity of the ELECTRIC POTENTIAL and hence the electricity itself, having thus been established a slight ACIDIFICATION of the cloud water is to be UNDERSTOOD as a means to impart conductivity to the water, which in a state of its purity is a bad conductor of electricity”.

Let the great masters of Chemistry read these chemical processes explained by the Quran.

Then the Quran says:-

” (Thumma Yajaluhu rukaaman)”. That is then “layeth them in heaps”. Let us read what the modern meteorological science says about the heaping up of the cloud. It says:-

” When the vapour in the air is condensed not through contact with cold bodies, but through the cooling of a mass of vapour -ladden air, then a cloud is formed. A cloud consists of fine drops of water. if it be near the ground it is called mist or fog. It would at the outset seem impossible to classify or account for the myriads of forms of the cloud, but when we come to observe and watch them closely, two main types of cloud-forms assert themselves. Those which appear in fillowy well-defined shapes, and those which spread over the heavens in a layer thick or thin, partial or complete. The former of these is called CUMULUS, a Latin word meaning HEAP, the latter STRATUS, a Latin word meaning A LAYER. These names are due to LUKE HORWARD (1802) and have been used by all cloud observers since his time. The meteorological science is of recent origin. It developed within the centuries of this modern age. Luke Horward (1802) first used the Terms CUMULUS and STRATUS”.

The Quran has anticipated him by centuries. The word Rukaaman which the Quran has used means exactly the CUMULUS. So far as the Term STRATUS is concerned, the Quran has used it in another sign (verse) about the very same topic. The sign is as follows:

That is : ” Allah is He who sendeth the wind so that they raise clouds, and spreadeth them along the sky as pleaseth Him. And forms them in layers, and thou seest the rain downpouring from within them”.

( Quran XXX – 48 )

” It is God who sends the breezes that raise clouds, then spreads them over the sky as He please, fold on fold, then you see the drops of rain issue from between them. When He sends it down to those of His creatures as He will, they are filled with joy”.

(Quran The Romans, 48)

The actual word is (Kisafan) which means to lay in layers, to stratify, to lay layer upon layer. It is exactly the term STRATUS, the term of Luke Horward. Though generally it is translated as, “causeth them to break”. It is surprising to note, that the Quran anticipated Luke Horward (1802) by centuries. The words of the Quran thus are not only scientific but also prophetic.

Then the Quran says:-

(Fataral Wadaqa Yakhruju min khilaalihi). That is : Thou seest the rain which falleth from the midst thereof. Actual word is (Min Khilaalihi), that is the rain is pouring from the (khilal) of the cloud. The meaning of this word is pin, skewer, spit. The root of this word is (khallala) which means to acetify. “Khal” means vinegar. Now the necessity of the acidification of the cloud water we have already narrated in the previous pages. A charge of milder sort is essential to achieve the coalescence of the spherules. The charge necessitates electricity. But pure water is a bad conductor of electricity. It is necessary therefore to acetify the water to endue water with the quality of conductivity. Thus the role of the word (khilal ) in the phenomenon becomes clear, to mean that no (khilal) meant no rain, and therefore no life on earth.

The Quran further says:-

(wa yunazzilu min assamaae min jibaalin fiha min bardin). That is:- ” And Allah sendeth down from heaven, from mountains wherein there is hail”. First imagine a cloud like a mountain of hail. How beautiful is the mountain of white pearls and how exact but novel is the simile. But the point which attracts our attention is hidden in the word (jibaal) which means mountains. The root of this word is (jabala) which means to kneed. Perhaps the most astonishing discovery of the modern meteorological science is that no mist nor fog could be formed, unless there were present in the vapour-laden air particles of dust or sand to act as the nucleus for the spherules of water that constitute the fog. This has been proved, since air filtered through cotton wool, has no tendency towards fog formation. The hail pellets likewise have been found to have been built around a spec of dust acting as their Nucleus, a process in distinction from that of the formation of snow. Now let us see the word (jibaal) that is mountains used by the Quran. The word Jibaal has been derived from the root-verb (jabala) which means to kneed. Then imagine a cloud of rain or of hail, wherein every spherule has a spec of dust or sand though invisible to naked eye. Certainly the cloud appears like a mountain made of dust particles kneeded with water. Remarkable also is the role of mountains in the formation of rain.

Now in the end it may be asked that the Quran in this phenomenon has made no mention of the great role played by the air. It is the air that carries the moisture, and it is the air that wafts the clouds. without the air no rain would have been possible. The question takes our thought to another sign (Ayat) of the Quran which is identical with the sign which we are discussing, and has mentioned the role of air. In the previous pages we have alluded to sing just read:-

(Quran-Alarum -48)

(Allah-u-lazi yursilu-arriaha fatuseeru sahaban). That is, ” He is Allah who sendeth the winds, so that they raise clouds”.

( Quran XXX-48 )

The Quran’s challenge, “Bring ye a chapter like unto it” stands good for every age, including this age of science. The knowledge of science shown by the Qruan is such that no scientist will ever think of being an equal to or like the Quran, the amazing word of Allah, the God of the worlds.



By: shaukat awan

About the Author:

The history of Medical Science is very interesting. Centuries before the advent of Islam the Arabs had their own system of medicine in the form of herbs and shrubs (‘Aqaqir wa’l Hashä’ish) which was based on Chaldean medicine and on their own experience. This is not the sort of thing you would find in your local Canadian pharmacy. Their first physician was Luqmân and the second Khuzaim. Gradually, Greek medicine attracted their attention. Harith Ibn Kaldah was the first to introduce Greek medicine to the Arabs. After that some books began to be written on the subject. Tiazauq composed a few treatises on pharmacology, and Khalid Ibn Yazid Ibn Mu’awiyah got some Greek and Egyptian books translated into Arabic. This was the condition during the rule of Banu ‘Umayyah. But the science of medicine flourished during the reign of the ‘Abbasis.1

At first the Muslims made arrangements for the translation of Greek, Indian, Persian and Chaldean medical works into Arabic, and thus gained the knowledge of the medical systems of these nations. But they did not accept as such what these systems had offered. They made researches in various branches of the medical science, and accepted what was found to be useful. Besides, they made many valuable new discoveries in the theory and practice of medicine. Then, combining their discoveries and the material sorted out of these systems, they evolved an entirely new system of medicine. When the Europeans learnt this system from the Muslims, generally through the Arabic medical literature, they properly called it Arabian Medicine, acknowledging on the one hand their indebtedness to the Muslims, and on the other putting a seal of testimony to the gigantic and original contributions of the Muslim scientists to medicine. Since the medical knowledge was primarily borrowed from the Greeks, the new system was named by the Muslims of the South Asian Sub-Continent Tibb-e-Yunãni(Greek Medicine). This act gives a proof of the Muslim spirit of liberalism.

When the Muslim world was producing most distinguished medical theoreticians and practitioners in history, the state of medicine in Europe was very poor. The Muslims who came in touch with Frank physicians during the Crusades expressed much scorn for their ignorance and barbaric practices. Thabit, a Christian physician of the Syrian prince Usãmah, observed two cases (C. 1140) ending fatally on account of the barbarous surgery of a Frank. The study of Islamic medicine was made for centuries in all the Western countries, particularly in France, and the Arabic medical writings formed the core of the European medical literature. Until the 17th century these writings were included in the syllabi of the European universities. In France the Arabian Medicine was studied from 1410 to 1789. In Vienna in 1520, and, in Frankfurt on the Order in 1588, the medical curriculum was still largely based on Ibn Sinä’s ‘Qãnun’ and on the ninth book of al-Rãzi’s ‘Al-Mansuri.’ The introduction of this science into Europe is an interesting chapter of history.

According to Dr. Robert Briffault, an eminent western scholar, the Allopathic system of medicine is the outcome of Arabian Medicine. He remarks:

“The Pharmacopoeia created by the Arabs is virtually that which but for the recent synthetic and organotherapic preparations, is in use at the present day; our common drugs, such as Nux vomica, Senna, rhubarb, aconite, gentian, myrrh, calomel, and the structure of our prescriptions, belong to Arabic Medicine”

He also discloses that the medical schools of Montpellier, Padua and Pisa were founded on the pattern of that of Cordova under Jew doctors trained in Arab schools, and the Qãnün of Ibn Sina and the Surgery of Abu’l-Qasim al-Zahrawi, remained the text books of medical science throughout Europe until the seventeenth century.2

The Arabs had a fair knowledge of anatomy as it is obvious from the names of the internal and external organs of the human and animal bodies, found in the literature of the pre-Islamic Arabia. When they became acquainted with the Greek anatomical descriptions, they made investigations on them, pointed out many errors in the work of their predecessors, and made many fresh discoveries in this field. In order to verify the Greek anatomical ideas prevailing at that time Yuhanna Ibn Mäsawaih made dissection of the apes which were supplied to him by the order of the ‘Abbasi Caliph Mutasim Billah. After this verification he composed his work on anatomy. The works of some Muslim physicians and surgeons, like Tashrih al-Mansuri by Mansur Ibn Muhammad contain illustrations of human organs, which are not found in the Greek works. These illustrations also throw light on the Muslims’ practical knowledge of anatomy.3

In opposition to Galen who thought that the human skull consisted of seven bones, the Muslim scholars held that it had eight. They believed that there were ossicles in the ear, which facilitate the hearing capacity.4 The work of the Muslim physicians in the field of physiology, too, is quite valuable. For instance, Ibn Nafis al-Qarshi of Damascus explained the theory of the minor circulation of blood three centuries before William Harvey to whom this discovery is ascribed. Al-Qarshi also suggested that food is fuel for the maintenance of the body’s heat. Abu’l-Faraj held that there are canals in the nerves through which sensations and movements are transmitted.

The contributions of Muslims in the field of bacteriology are quite revolutionary. According to Browne, Muslims were fully aware of the theory of germs. Ibn Sinã was the first to state that bodily secretion is contaminated by foul foreign earthly bodies before getting the infection. Ibn Khätimah of the 14th century stated that man is surrounded by minute bodies which enter the human body and cause disease. In the same century when the great plague ravaged the world, and the chief causes of it, based on superstition, were said to be either the Jews or volcanic eruptions or the birth of a calf with two heads, two Muslim doctors, Ibn Khatib (1313-1374) and Ibn Khätimah (1323-1369), wrote on it treatises which were based on scientific observations.5

Some Muslims also gave new suggestions regarding the treatment of diseases. In this connection Abu’1 Hasan, the physician of Adud al-Daulah introduced the process of bleeding as a treatment of cerebral hemorrhage which is often due to blood pressure. Al-Razi suggested nourishing food for the treatment of general weakness. The Muslim physicians were the first to use the stomach tube for the performance of gastric lavage in the case of gas poisoning. They were fully aware of the principles of opotherapy centuries before Browne Sequard to whom this method of treatment is ascribed. Said Ibn Bishr Ibn ‘Abdus suggested light food and cold producing medicines for the treatment of general paralysis and facial paralysis. Ibn al-Wãfid gave emphasis upon the treatment of diseases through food control. They discovered the treatment for epidemic jaundice, and suggested a reasonable quantity of opium as a treatment of mania. For epistaxis they suggested the pouring of cold water on the head.6

The investigations of Muslim physicians on the causes, symptoms and effects of some diseases are highly remarkable. Al-Razi was he first physician to differentiate between smallpox and measles. His Greek, Indian and other predecessors were unable to differentiate between these two diseases. Abu’l-Hasan al-Tabari was the first to regard tuberculosis as an infiltration, and stated that it affects not only the lungs but also the other organs. The Bright’s disease, the discovery of which is ascribed to Dr. Richard Bright of the 18th century, was in fact discovered by Najib al-Din al-Samarqandi centuries before him.7

In the science of surgery, too, much advancement was made by Muslims. They introduced the cauterizing agents in surgery. They were the first to apply the method of cooling to stop the haemorrhage, and to start the suturing of wounds with silken threads. Ibn Zuhr (11th century) gave a complete description of operation of tracheotomy, which was not mentioned by the Greeks. Abu’l-Qasim al-Zahrawi invented many surgical instruments illustrated in his book ‘al-Tasrif’. In the same book he described the methods of operations for various diseases. While describing the operations of skull and its parts, the Muslim surgeons made a mention of the operation of uvula and nasal polynus. They used the method of tonsillectomy and paracentesis of the drum of the ear. They were also the first to perform the operation of peritoneal cavity, and to use the method of Trocar and Canula for the special drainage. They made use of anesthetic substances in surgery. While performing major operations they kept their patients unconscious for long time, sometimes even for days.8

The Muslim opticians did valuable and original work in the treatment of eye diseases and in the surgery of the eye. All the operations of the eye which are performed these days were performed by the Muslim surgeons of Mediaeval Ages. The method of the operation of cataract was first described by them. They knew that cataract was due to the incapacity of the eye lens. Ibn al-Haitham described the structure of the eye. He gave the revolutionary ideas as regards the mechanism of sight, and described various types of lenses. Later on these descriptions served as the basis for the invention of spectacles used as a remedy for such eye diseases as short-sightedness and long-sightedness. The Muslims wrote valuable books on the treatment of eye diseases.

The art of midwifery was highly developed by Muslims. In this connection Abu’l-Qasim al-Zahrawi was the first to describe the Walcher’s position. He invented the method of Cranioclasty for the delivery of dead foetus and he himself applied it. A book entitled Al-Athär al-Bãqiyyah in the University of Edinburgh contains an illustration showing an Arab physician performing Caeserian operation. A number of new drugs and therapeutic agents were discovered by Muslims, and many herbs particularly those of India were included in their practice. The pharmacology of rhubarb, senna and camphor was discovered, and hyoscyamus was used by them for medical purposes.

The Muslims introduced pharmacopoeia in medical science. Ibn Sahl was the first to write a book on pharmacopoeia. The recipes contained in the writings of Da’ud al-Antaki (16th century) and others were adopted by European druggists. Arabian pharmacology survived in Europe until the beginning of the 19th century. Some of the original Arabic or Persian names of some drugs and chemicals, such as syrup from the Arabic word Sharab, rab’ for a particular mixture of honey and fruit juice, and julep from the Persian word julläb’ (a particular aromatic drink) were included in European languages.

The Muslims wrote books on those branches of medical science on which their predecessors did not. Among such books Yühann Ibn Maswaih’s book on leprosy, Al-Razi’s books on smallpox and measles, Abü Müsä Ibn ‘Isã’s book on piles, and Qusta Ibn Luqa’s book on sudden death are highly valuable.

From the time of the Banu Umayyah rule the Muslims developed the institution of hospitals. During the reign of the ‘Abbasi Caliph Harün al- Rashid, a hospital was built in Baghdad, which was the first in the history of this city. Many new hospitals were established shortly afterwards. Some of them had their own gardens in which the medicinal plants were cultivated. The large hospitals had medical schools attached to them. Beside such hospitals there were a large number of traveling hospitals in the Muslim world.9

The Muslim hospitals served as models for the hospitals established in different parts of Europe particularly in Italy and France. The establishment of hospitals throughout Europe in the 14th century was partly due to the influence of Crusades. The first hospital in Paris, Quinze Vingt, was set up by Louis IX after his return from the Crusades of 1254-60. The Crusaders were inspired by the magnificent hospitals (Bimaris-tans) of the Seljüq ruler Nur al-Din in Damascus, and those of the Mamluk Sultan Al-Mansur Qala’un in Cairo.

Practical education used to be imparted to Muslim medical students in the hospitals. It is said that there as no arrangement for such education in Alexandria before the Muslim era. According to Al-Razi, a physician had to, satisfy two conditions for selection: firstly, he should be well versed in new and old medical literature, and secondly, he must have worked in hospitals as a house surgeon.10

The second ‘Abbãsi Caliph Al-Mansür called to Baghdad from Jundishapur a Christian physician of Persian origin, named Jarjis Ibn Bakhtyishu who remained in charge of the hospital of that city until 765-6. His arrival at Baghdad with two of his pupils marked the beginning of a great activity in the field of medicine. He seems to be the earliest member of the famous Bakhtyishu family of medical practitioners. This family remained attached to the court of a number of ‘Abbãsi caliphs, and exerted a great influence on the progress of Muslim medicine in the eighth and ninth centuries. Jarjis is said to have been the first to translate some medical works into Arabic. The translations were made by the order of the Caliph. 11

In the ninth century of the Christian era the greatest medical activity was shown by the Arabic speaking peoples. Much activity was devoted to translating the Greek medical works into Syrian and into Arabic. All the translators were Christians. One of them, Ibn-Sahda translated some works of Hippocrates into Arabic. Jibril Ibn Bakhtyishu (d. 828-29) patronized the translators, and worked hard to obtain Greek medical texts. He also wrote some medical works of his own. He made a great contribution to the progress of science in Baghdad. He was the most prominent member of the Bakhtyishu family. A Christian Physician, Salmawaih Ibn Bunan. (d. 839-40) helped Hunáin to translate Galen’s medical works. Salmawaih showed that the use of aphrodisiacs, so common in the East, was dangerous. He flourished under Al-Mä’mün. Later he became physician in ordinary to Al-Mutasim.12

Another translator, Ibn Masawaih (d. 857) translated various Greek medical works into Syrian. His own medical writings were in Arabic. His treatise on ophthalmology called Daghal al‘Ayn (disorder of the eye) is the earliest work extant in Arabic on the subject.13

Another important translator of Greek medical works into Arabic was Ayyub al-Ruhawi, a contemporary of the ‘Abbasi Caliphs Al-Mutawakkil and Al-Mu’tazz (d.869). The translation of 35 works of Galen, a Greek physician, is ascribed to him.14

So far as the physicians of the ninth century ate concerned, an important one was Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali Ibn Sahl Ibn Rabban al-Tabari. He was also a physicist, and had knowledge of the Bible. He was born in Tabaristan where he was brought up. He belonged to a Jewish family, but he accepted Islam at the hand of the ‘Abbsi Caliph Al-Mu’tasim, who made him his courtier. Ali Ibn Rabban is the author of many works, but his main work is an encyclopedia called Firdaus al-Hikmah. It deals chiefly with medicine, but also with philosophy, meteorology, zoology, embryology, psychology and astronomy. It is mostly based on Greek and Hindu sources, and contains a summary of Hindu medicine at the end. His other medical works are on hygiene, and on the use of food stuffs, drinks and herbs.15

The most illustrious physician of the ninth century was Abü Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakariyya al-Ràzi, (Latin Rhazes). He was the greatest clinician of the middle Ages and probably the greatest Muslim physician. He was also a philosopher and chemist. He was born in Ray (Persia); hence called Al-Razi. The date of his birth is uncertain. He died in 923. In his early age Al-Razi was very fond of music, and used to play flute (‘Ud). When he was of mature age he wished to acquire the knowledge of medicine. His interest in medicine was aroused by an old druggist or dispenser whom he frequently met in the hospital. At last Al-Razi became such an expert physician that he was appointed as the chief physician at the hospital of Ray. Al-Razi regularly attended the hospital, surrounded by his pupils. Whenever any patient came to him he was first examined by his pupils. If the case was found to be complicated, it was passed on to Al-Razi.

Al-Rãzi also served as the chief physician of the hospital of Baghdad which was founded at his own advice. When Al-Rãzi was asked to select some suitable site to build the hospital there, he got some pieces of meat suspended in various localities of the city. The place where the meat deteriorated in the last was selected as the site for the hospital.

Al-Rãzi was the author of 113 major and 28 minor works and of two poems. Some of them have been published in original, and translated into Latin and vernacular languages. Al-Rãzi’s unpublished works are present in the libraries of Asia and Europe. Most of his works have been lost, but from those which are extant one can estimate the depth of his knowledge and ability. His writings are full of personal observations and valuable information. The most important of his monographs is a treatise on smallpox and measles. This work is a masterpiece of Muslim medical literature. It was translated into Latin and English, and enjoyed a great popularity in Europe. It has been published in original, with a French translation in Leyden in 1896.

One of Al-Rãzi’s treatises is on the stone in the kidney and urinary bladder. It has been published in original, with a French translation in Leyden in 1896.

The most important book of Al-Rãzi is Al-Häwi (Continens). It is an enormous encyclopedia of medicine, which contains many extracts from Greek and Hindu medical works. It was translated into Latin. The anatomical part was translated into French and published along with the original Arabic text.

Another important medical work of this author is the Kitab al-Mansüri (Latin Almansoris) named after Mansür Ibn Ishaq, the ruler of Khurasan, who patronized Al-Rãzi while he was living in Persia. This book is largely based on Greek medicine. The French translation of the first part along with the Arabic text has been published. Its ophthalmologic part was translated into German. The second part of the book deals with temperaments and physiology. This subject was of extremely great importance during the Middle Ages.

Al-Rãzi made a valuable contribution to gynecology, obstetrics and Ophthalmic surgery. He also made a considerable contribution to the development of Chemistry, both theoretical and practical. He was the first to apply Chemistry to the preparation of drugs. He is the ancestor of the European iatrochemists of the 16th century.16

Al-Rãzi made a few discoveries in the field of medical science, and invented some drugs. He stated that a sour matter is found in the stomach. He was the first to introduce wet cupping for the treatment of apoplexy and to apply cold water in typhoid. He invented the mercury ointment.17

Al-Rãzi’ was a brilliant and conscious physician. He followed Hippocrates, and was free from the feelings of prejudice and obstinacy. During the reign of the Caliph Al-Mu’tadid (829-902), his stable master, Abü Yusuf Ya’qub Ibn akhi Hizäm wrote a treatise on horsemanship which is entitled as Kitab al-Furusiyyah. It contains some rudiments of veterinary art. It is the first Arabic work of its kind.

Under the patronage of Banü Musä (the sons of Musä) and the Caliph Al-Mutawakkil a Christian physician, Hunayn Ibn Ishaq translated the medical and other scientific works of the Greeks. Banu Musä employed him for the acquisition and translation of Greek manuscripts. The Caliph also appointed him in a school established by him, and ordered him to get these manuscripts translated under his supervision. He became the foremost translator of medical works. The translation made by Hunayn and his disciples was a milestone in the history of the development of science. Hunayn also wrote many medical and astronomical worko.18

In the tenth century nearly all the creative work on medicine was done in the Muslim world, but not by Muslims alone. Some non-Muslims, too, made valuable contributions to the development of this science. But all of them wrote in Arabic. Towards the middle of the tenth century, the number of physicians grew surprisingly large. The research on medicine was carried out throughout the Muslim world. In Muslim Spain the work on medicine was of the same level as in the domain of Eastern Caliphate. Sometimes it was even superior to that.

The Fatimi Caliph Ubaid Allah al-Mahdi (908-934), ordered his physician Ishaq al-Isrã’ili, a Jewish physician and philosopher to compose some medical writings in Arabic. He wrote a medico-philosophical treatise on the elements and another on definitions. His main works are on fever, simple drugs, temperaments, dentology and urine. The last work seems to be the most elaborate mediaeval treaties on the subject. These writings were translated into Latin, Hebrew and Spanish. They exerted a great influence on the progress of medicine in Europe.l9

A great Muslim physician of the tenth century was Abü Sa’id Sinãn Ibn Thãbit Ibn Qurrah. He was also a mathematician and astronomer. He flourished at Baghdad where he died in 943. He embraced Islam in middle age. He was greatly honored by the Abbasi Caliph Al-Muqtadir who appointed him as the chief physician. At that time there were 860 persons of the medical profession in Baghdad. They were forbidden by the Caliph to practice unless they had been examined by Sinãn and received a certificate of registration from him. Besides serving Muq’tadir, Sinãn also served two other successive Caliphs, Qadir Billãh and Radi. Sinãn tried to raise the standard of medical profession, and organized a brilliant administration of the Baghdad hospitals. He is the author of many works on different subjects.20

Another great physician of this period who was one of the three greatest physicians of the Eastern Caliphate was ‘Ali Ibn ‘Abbãs al-Majüsi (Latin Haly Abbas). He was the native of Ahwãz in South-West Persia. He was a close associate of ‘Adud al-Dawlah for whom he wrote an encyclopedia called ‘Kitab al-Maliki or Kämil al-Sanãah al-Tibbiyyah. The people intensely studied it until the appearance of the ‘Qãnün’ (Canon) of Ibn Sinã, which usurped its popularity. It is more practical than the ‘Qãnün’ and more systematic than Razi’s Hawi. The Maliki is divided into 20 discourses, of which the first – half deals with the theory and the rest with the practice of medicine.

The second and the third discourses of Al-Ma1iki deal with anatomy. The French translation of this part of the book has been published along with the Arabic text. The 19th discourse is devoted to surgery. The introduction of this book consisting of three chapters of the first discourse is highly remarkable. The part of the introduction consisting of the criticism of the ancient medical works is particularly interesting. The author explains the plans of his book in which he tries to give a moderate description of the subject treated, and illustrates his method by a specimen description of pleurisy. He begins with the definition of the disease and its aetiology. Then he mentions the four constant symptoms, fever, cough, pain and dyspnoea; whence he proceeds to the prognosis and specially the indications furnished by the supta, and finally give the treatment. In his book the author describes the importance of attending the hospital regularly. He writes: “And of those things which are incumbent on the student of this Art are that he should constantly attend the hospitals and sick houses, pay unremitting attention to the conditions and circumstances of their inmates, in company of the most acute professors of Medicine; and enquire frequently as to the state of the patients and the symptoms apparent in them, hearing in mind what he has read about their Variations, and what they indicate of good or evil. If he does this, he will reach a high degree in this Art. Therefore, it behooves him who desires to be an accomplished physician to follow closely these injunctions, to form his character in accordance with what we have mentioned therein, and not to neglect them. If he does this, his treatment of the sick will be successful, people will have confidence in him, and he will win their affection and respect and a good reputation; nor will he lack profit and advantage from them. And God Most High knoweth best”.

The best parts of the book are those which are devoted to dietetics and ‘materia medica.’ It contains the rudimentary conception of the capillary system. It also includes some interesting clinical observations, and gives the proof of the theory that the womb moves during parturition i.e., the child is pushed out. It does not come out itself.21

Another physician of this period, who made pharmaceutical experiments was Abu ‘Abd Allah Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Ibn Sa’id al-Tamimi al-Muqaddasi. He was born in Jerusalem, and in 970 he went to Egypt. He wrote on materia medica and other branches of medical science. His main work is a guide (Murshid) on materia medica which supplies valuable information on plants, minerals and other things.22

A Christian physician named Abu Yüsuf Ben Issac Ben Ezra Hasdai flourished at Cordova at the court of ‘Abd al-Rahman III and Al-Hakam II. He was a translator of Greek works into Arabic and a patron of science. He was physician to the Caliph. He discovered a panacea called ‘Al-Fãruq.’ He translated with the help of the monk Nicolas a manuscript of Dioscorides. This manuscript dealing with plants was presented to ‘Abd al-Rahman III by the Emperor Constantinos VII.23

Another physician, patronized by these rulers, was Arib Ibn Sa’id al-Kãtib who died in 976. He was also a historian and wrote a chronicle of Muslim Spain and Africa. He also wrote a treatise on gynecology, the hygiene of the pregnant women and infants, obstetics and calendar. 24

Another treatise on the hygiene of the pregnant women and of babies, entitled Kitab Tadbir al-Habalah wa’l Atfal, was written by an Egyptian physician named Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Yahyã al-Baladi. He flourished under the wazir Yaqub Ibn Kils (d. 990).25

A famous physician and historian of the tenth century was Abu Jafar Ahmad Ibn Ibrãhim Ibn Abi Khalid, commonly known as Ibn al-Jazzar. He flourished in Qairawan, Tunis, and died in 1009. He is the author of many works on medicine, history and other subjects. His most important work is Zäd al-Musäfir. It was translated into Latin, Hebrew and Greek, and was extremely popular. It includes a remarkable discussion on smallpox and measles. He also wrote on simple and compound drugs, the cause of plague in Egypt and the way of treating it.26

In the eleventh century, too, real advancement in the field of medicine was made only in the Muslim world. In the same century the school of Salerno, the scientific school of Christian Europe showed some activity in this field. But the literary works produced there were far inferior to the contemporary ones written, in Arabic. Constantine, the African, made intensive efforts to translate Arabic works into Latin. These translations were helpful in the development of medicine in Europe.

An important physician and surgeon of the 11th century was Abu’l-Qasim Khalaf Ibn Abbas al-Zahräwi. He was born at Al-Zahra in the suburb of Cordova (Spain), the centre of Western Muslim Empire. He was educated in a distinguished university of Cordova. He studied medicine and other sciences with the learned scholars of his time, and increased his knowledge and experience by working in great hospitals. Due to his ability Al-Hakam II made him his court physician. He wrote a book entitled Al-Tasrif, which is an encyclopedic work comprising all branches of medicine and surgery. This book, unparalleled in the medieval times, is considered to be the only source of modern surgery. It is divided into two parts; theoretical and practical. Each part consists of 15 chapters. The last section of the book sums up the entire surgical knowledge of that time, and contains illustrations of more than 300 surgical instruments which are used even today. This section is divided into three parts. The first part deals with cauterization (of wounds) and the instruments used for that purpose. This type of treatment was very popular in Arabia. The advantages of fire have also been fully explained in it.

The second part deals with common surgical operations. It gives the methods for crushing and removing the stone from the urinary bladder, the operations of eyes and teeth, and cutting the organs of the body. It also discusses bandages and the treatment of ulcers and wounds.

The third part deals with bone fractures and the problems of joints. An account of the paralysis caused by some defect in the spinal cord has also been given. In this part the author has given a discussion on midwifery and a description of various stages of the embryo in the womb of the mother, and has mentioned the method for taking out the child from the womb of the mother with the help of instruments.

In the 12th century the book Al-Tasrif was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona; and its various editions were published at Venice in 1497, and at Basel in 1541. In 1778 it was published at Oxford along with the original Arabic text. One copy of this edition is present in the British Museum and one in Bodleian Library. Its English translation was published in 1861, and French translation in 1881. The Arabic text of the book was published at Lucknow (India) in 1908, and to explain the difficult words and the complicated terms used in it, an Arabic-Urdu dictionary entitled Lughat-e-Qutbiyyah, was composed and published.

This masterpiece of Al-Zahrawi held its place for centuries as the manual of surgery at Salerno, Montpelliers and other early schools of medicine in Europe. The great European historians admit that for her primary advancement in surgery Europe is indebted to Al-Zahrawi. Dr. Edward Browne and Dr. Joseph Heres have recognized Abu’l Qasim al-Zahrawi as an eminent surgeon. In his book Arabian Medictne, Dr. Arnold Campbell has written a large treatise on Al-Zahrawi, which reveals, the importance of this name in the West. He disclosed that the Western scholars Roger Bacon (1214-49) and Goe De Scholeic (1300-68) gained the knowledge of medicine and surgery from the books of Al-Zahrawi and Ibn Rushd.

Roger Bacon, John Tchanning and other scholars remarked that Al-Zahrawi’s work helped in laying the foundation of surgery in Europe. For centuries the Western scholars made references to this work in their books. It has influenced Muslim scholars also, and it is still being referred to and taught at the centers of Arabian Medicine in the East.27

A great scientist of the 11th century and one of the greatest scientists of all times was Abu Ali Husain Ibn Abd Allah Ibn Sina, commonly known in the West as Avicenna. He was one of the greatest men that this world has ever produced. Although he did not belong to an influential family, and was unable to get the facilities of life, yet he became, while still a youth, the author of an encyclopedic work. His life was full of events, and circumstances often obliged him to travel from court to court where sometimes honours were showered upon him, and sometimes he was cast into prison. But whatever the situation may be, he occupied himself in reading, writing and teaching, and remained always surrounded by a group of his pupils. He was a philosopher, physician, scientist, poet, philologist, logician, statesman and thinker, who made research, and contributed to the development of all sciences, and through whose efforts medicine, recorded an unprecedented progress. He was hailed by the scholars as Al-Shaykh al-Ra’is (the Great Teacher). He possessed so many qualities that, while discussing his life history, we almost fail to decide as to what aspect of his life should be more particularly discussed.

Ibn Sinã, the ‘Prince of Physicians’ as he was called throughout the medieval times, was born in 980 at a village in the Persian Province of Balkh where his father lived. In 985 his family moved to Bukhãrã where, at the age of five, he started his education. At the age of 10 years he had already completed his basic education, and also learnt the Qurãn by heart. He was, then, sent to various teachers under whom, for the next six years, he studied algebra, arithmetic, astronomy, logic, philosophy and theology. At the age of 16 he turned to medicine. In the course of his study of philosophy, Ibn Sinã was confused by those problems which were related to metaphysics, but ultimately he got rid of his difficulties with the help of a commentary by a distinguished philosopher, Al-Färàbi, Ibn Sinä was an industrious student who never spent a whole day or a whole night in sleep or in any other occupation but study, and whenever he came across some obscure point he would go to a mosque where he prayed to Allah to remove his confusion.

Ibn Sinã states that at first he practiced medicine, not for the sake of money; but for his own experience and instruction. He was just 18 years old when he became so much popular as a medical practitioner that he was summoned for the treatment of Nuh Ibn Mansür Sãmäni, when the other physicians failed to cure him. When Nuh Ibn Mansür had recovered he was so much pleased with Ibn Sina that he allowed him to visit the royal library which was well stocked with rare and valuable books, and Ibn Sinã derived the fullest benefit from this opportunity.

At the age of 21 Ibn Sina was to be found at the court of ‘Ali Ibn Ma’mun, the King of Khwärizm, who’s prime minister was a man of scholarly taste. Here Ibn Sina was treated with great respect. At last he fled from there, for the king Mahmud Ghaznawi wanted him at his court, but he preferred liberty to the court of the king. Then hearing about the scholarly taste of Qabus, the ruler of Jurjan, he set out for Jürjan where he eventually reached after undergoing great hardships. But he was too late, because shortly before his arrival Qäbüs was deposed. Ibn Sinä gave expression to his misfortune in a poem which he composed at this occasion. He says: “When I became great no country had room for me; when my price went up, I lacked a purrchaser”.

At last, circumstances caused Ibn Sina to leave this country too. Turning Westwards he came to Ray where a woman named Sayyidah was ruling on behalf of her infant son, Majd al-Dawlah Daylami. Here he was treated with great respect and the young prince appointed him as his minister. The mother being angry at this appointment, Ibn Sinã was obliged to flee once more.

Now Ibn Sinã reached Hamadan and treated Shams al-Dawlah, the ruler of the country, who was suffering from colic. When he recovered he appointed Ibn Sinã as his minister. But only a short while had passed when mutiny broke out among the soldiers, which caused his dismissal and imprisonment. But very soon Shams al-Dawlah was again attacked by severe colic. He, therefore, summoned Ibn Sinã back to undertake his treatment, apologized to him, and restored him to his office of state. The death of Shams al-Dawlah led Ibn Sinä to trouble, for his successor; Taj al-Dawlah did not like him. Ibn Sinä fled and hid himself in a house. His flight gave rise to suspicion with the result that he was sought after and imprisoned. But after four months he escaped in disguise and came to Ispahan where ‘Ala al-Dawlah, often known as Ibn Käküya, was reigning.

Here Ibn Sinã was welcomed by Ala al-Dawlah, and became his confidential adviser. Thus once again he overcame his misfortune, and began to lead a very active life. During the day he attended to the matters of the state, and spent a great part of the night in delivering lectures and in writing his books. At last Ibn Sinã, who was tired of activities and was weakened by overwork, died in 1036 of colic at the early age of 58 years. His tomb lies in the city of Hamadan.

Ibn Sinã was a remarkable scholar who began to write before he was 17, and wrote almost on all subjects. Numerous works are ascribed to him, many of which are voluminous. Brocklemann enlists 99 of his extant works but he is known to be the author of 200 works. Out of these 68 are on theology and metaphysics, 11 on astronomy, philosophy and physics, four on poetry, and 16 on medical science. He wrote mainly in Arabic but his two Persian works are also known. One of them named Danishnama-e ‘Alài which was dedicated to Ala al-Dawlah, is a manual of philosophy. It deals with natural science, philosophy, logic, mathematics, music, metaphysics and astronomy. The other is a small treatise on pulse.

Among the 16 medical writings of Ibn Sinã, eight are versified treatises. They deal with such matters as the 25 signs indicating the fatal end of illness, hygienic precepts, proved remedies, anatomical memoranda, and similar other topics. Among his books the most important and popular is Al-Qãnün (Canon). This is a comprehensive book and contains about a million words. It has been excessively and beautifully divided into major and minor sections. The whole work has been divided into five parts. The first part deals with the general principles of medical treatment, the second describes the simple drugs in alphabetical order. The third part discusses the diseases of all the organs of the human body, and the fourth consists of the description of those diseases which are local in the beginning, and finally affect all parts of the body. The final part is on materia medica. The Qãnün was translated into Hebrew in 1270. It was also translated into Latin by the two Gerard of Toledo, and about 30 editions of this work were published in Europe. Many commentaries on the work were written in the 15th century. A beautiful Arabic edition of the book was published in Rome in 1593. Another edition was published in Egypt a few years ago. The translation of the first volume of the book, with the exception of the anatomical part, was made into English in 1930 by Dr. O.C. Gruner and was commented by him and by Dr. Soubiran in 1935.

Ibn Sinã surpassed both Aristotle and Galen in dialectical subtlety, and his way of reasoning appealed to the scholastics of the middle Ages. The Qãnün formed half the medical curriculum of the European universities in the latter part of the 15th century, and continued as a text book up to about 1650 in the universities of Montpellier and Louvain. It is still the reference book of the men of medical profession in the East. After the appearance of Qãnün, the study of the books of Al-Rãzi and the Kämil al-Sana’at of Al-Majusi, which were standard works, was almost completely abandoned.

Nizãmi Arüdi Samarqandi in his ‘Chahãr Maqalah’ (Four Treatises) after narrating various works, the deep study of which is essential for the acquisition of full knowledge of the medical science, remarked “Whoever has thoroughly understood the first volume of the Qãnün, to him nothing will remain hidden of the fundamental principles of medicine, and were it possible for Hippocrates and Galen to return to life it is sure that they would do reverence to this book”.

Among the other medical writings of Ibn Sinã are Al-’Urjuzah Fi’l-Tibb, and his treatise on cordiac drugs. The latter lies probably second in importance to the Qãnün. Two other minor works, namely, Qawanin or ‘The Laws’ and the Hudüd al-Tibb (The limitations of medical science) are also known. Ibn Sinã also wrote a treatise on Colic. He is also the author of a book called Mabda’wa’l-Ma’àd, which contains an interesting chapter on the possibility of the production of exceptional psychical phenomena.

Beside Al-Qãnün some other works of Ibn Sinã have also been translated into Latin, and thus they influenced the development of science and philosophy in Europe. In his ‘Arabian Medicine’, Dr. Campbell enlists these translations in detail.28

Another Muslim physician of this period, who also had a knowledge of astronomy, mathematics and literature, was Abu’l-Salt Umayyah Ibn Abd al-Aziz Ibn Abi’l Salt. He was born in 1067-68 at Denis, and lived in Seville. He traveled Eastwards and came to Egypt where he stayed for 20 years. In the middle of this period he was imprisoned and banished by the Emperor Afzal. He went to Alexandria and thence to Mehdiya where he became an associate of Yahyã Ibn Tamim, the ruler of that territory.

About the end of the 11th century he tried to raise a ship sunk at Alexandria but could not succeed. He was the author of several medical, astronomical and mathematical works. He also wrote some treatises called Rasã’il al-Misriyyah which contains his observations on the people and things in Egypt. His main and important works include a treatise on simple drugs (translated into Latin), a treatise on Logic (translated into Spanish) and a treatise on astrolabe. He also composed some verses which are said to be very appealing. Abul-Sa1t also wrote a treatise on music which was translated into Hebrew.29

Now we mention some members of Ibn Zuhr family which was the greatest medical family of Spain. This family belonged to the tribe of Banü Azd. At the beginning of the tenth century it established itself at Shätibah (Jativa) in the East of Spain. The Spanish ancestor of this family was named Zuhr, hence the patronymic Ibn Zuhr.

The most illustrious member, except Ibn Zuhr, of this great medical family of Muslim Spain, was Abu’l-Ala Zuhr Ibn Abu Marwan ‘Abd al-Malik Ibn Muhammad Ibn Marwan al-Ishbili. Abul-Alã’ flourished in Eastern Spain. He lived in Cordova. He engaged himself in the study of Hadith and literature. Later he turned towards medicine. He was a distinguished physician, and had a comprehensive knowledge of medicine. The people of Maghrib felt proud of him and of his family. He was the courtier of Al-Mutamid, the last Abbsi king of Seville, who ruled from

1068-1091. When Seville was conquered by the Berber Murabitin (Almoravides) in 1091, he became wazir to the conqueror Yüsuf Ibn Tashfin who ruled until 1106. His usual name, Al-Wazir Abu’l Ala Zuhr was corrupted in Latin translations in many ways; such as Alguazir, Albuleizer. He died in Cordova in 1130. His body was carried to Seville where he was buried.

Abu’l Ala Zuhr is the author of many medical works. One of them is Kitab al-Nukat al-Tibbiyyah (main principles of medicine) which is a practical guide containing special references to climatological and pathological conditions in Marrakush. It supplies complementary information on deontology and various other medical subjects.30

The most famous and illustrious member of the greatest medical family of the Muslim Spain, Ibn Zuhr family is Abu Marwan ‘Abd al-Malik lbn Abi’l-Ala’ Ibn Zuhr, commonly known as Ibn Zuhr (Latin Avenzoar). He was born about 1091-1094, and died in 1161-62. He was a native of Seville (Spain), and was the greatest physician of his time, both in the East and in the West. He is distinguished from other physicians in that he devoted his entire attention to the study of medicine. He served under Al-Murabitün and when they got defeated by the Almohades (Al-Muwahhidun) he became a physician and Minister to the first Muwahhid ruler (1130-1163) Abd al-Mu’min Ibn ‘Ali. He was the author of at least six medical works. One of these is the Kitàb al-Iqtisad fi Islah al-Anfus wa’l-Ajsäd. It was written for the ‘Murabit’ prince Ibrahim Ibn Yüsuf Ibn Tashfin who was the son of the minister. As the title suggests, it deals with souls as well as with bodies. In the beginning it gives a summary of psychology. Further it deals with therapeutics and hygiene.

The second book which is the author’s most important work is the Kitäb al-Taisir fi’l Mudãwat wa’l Tadbir (Book of simplification concerning therapeutics and treatment) which was written at the request of his friend and admirer, Ibn Rushd. It deals with generalities of medicine and some special topics. It contains an elaborate study of pathological conditions and relevant therapeutics. At the end of this book the author gave an antidotory or formulary called Jämi’ (collector) in which he had collected recipes. The Taisir was translated into Latin and Hebrew.

The Taisir contains many clinical descriptions such as mediastinal tumors, pericarditis, intestinal phthisis, pharyngeal paralyses, inflammation of the middle ear and scabies. The author recommends tracheotomy and artificial feeding through the gullet and rectum. He recognized that the air coming from marshes is nocuous. He greatly advocated venesection. He was the first to describe itch-mitl. (Acarus scaliei). Thus he was the first important parasitologist since Alexander of Taralles (second half of the sixth century).

The third book of Ibn Zuhr is Kitäb al-Aghdhiyyah (Book of the food stuffs) which was written for the first Muwahhid ruler ‘Abd al-Mu’min who ruled from 1130 to 1163. This book deals with various kinds of food and their use according to seasons, with simple drugs and hygiene. It also shows the usefulness of various bezel stones.31

Until the end of the 11th century, all the medical works in the Muslim world were written in Arabic. Arabic language was the only medium for expressing religious and philosophical ideas throughout the Muslim world. Even the works of non-Muslims were written in Arabic. But for the first time, in the 11th century, medical literature was produced in Persian as well. A physician, Zain al-Din Abu’l-Fada’il Ismã’il Ibn al- Husain came to the court of Khwärizm and wrote some works on medicine in Persian. He also wrote in Arabic. Among these the most important was a medical encyclopedia, the Dhakhira-e-Khwarizm Shahi, the treasure of the king of Khwãrizm. It was written for Qutb al-Din Muhammad Shah (1097-1127).

The Dhakhira consists of about 450,000 words. It is very carefully divided into various headings and sub-headings. Primarily, it is divided into nine books. A tenth book on simple drugs had been added later. Secondarily, it is divided into 75 discourses and 1107 chapters. Six chapters of the eighth discourse of the sixth book are devoted to the local diseases of heart, and a part of the 13th discourse deals with Istisqä. The Tadhkirah was translated into Hebrew. A lithographed Urdu translation of this book is used in India and Pakistan.

The author compiled some other comparatively short books. For the wazir of Qutb al-Din successor. He composed a treatise entitled Aqhrad

ai-Tibb. He compiled another treatise on drugs and pharmacy. He also wrote a condensed edition of Tadhkirah entitled Khafi ‘Alä’i. Khafi is a derivative of Khaf, meaning a riding shoe. The book was written in two long volumes so that the traveler could take each one of these volumes in a riding shoe. Ismãil Ibn al-Hunayn is also the author of some other works.32

The greatest physician of the 13th century was ‘Ala al-Din Abu’l-Hasan Ali lbn Abi’l-Hazm Ibn al-Nafis al-Qarshi, who was born in Damascus and died at the age of 80, probably in 1288-1289 in Egypt, He wrote many works on medicine and other subjects. As the source of his writings he used his memory, experience, observations and deductions, and relied very little on other sources. He was often quoted by other writers. He set up an endowment for the Mansuri hospital in Cairo.

Ibn al-Nafis is the author of many commentaries on the Al-Hadith (the Prophetic traditions) and on the medical writings of Hippocrates, Hunayn Ibn Ishaq and Ibn Sinã. He also wrote some medical works. One of them is a treatise on eve diseases and another on diet entitled Kitab al-Mukhtar min al-Aghdhiyyah. Among all his writings the best is his commentary on the Qãnün, Kitab Mu’jiz al-Qãnün (also called Al- Mujiz fi’l-Tibb). It is divided into four sections, (1) generalities on the theory and practice of medicine; (2) victuals and drugs, simple and compound; (3) diseases of the individual organs; (4) other diseases, their causes, symptoms and cures. This book enjoyed much popularity. Many commentaries •were written on it. It was translated into Turkish and Hebrew.

Ibn al-Nafis wrote another commentary on the anatomical part of the Qãnün. It is extremely interesting from the physiological point of view. Ibn al-Nafis describes Ibn Sinã’s view on circulation in heart and lungs, and repeats the Galenic fragments as described by Ibn Sinã. He then vigorously contradicted these views. He stated that the venous blood cannot pass from the right to the left ventricle through visible or invisible pores in the septum, but must pass through the venous artery to the lungs, mingled there, with air, pass through the ‘arterious vein’ into the left vertical and form there the “vital spirit”. Ibn Nafis theory is of extreme importance. Ibn Nafis is one of the main for runners of William Harvey and the greatest physiologist of the Middle Ages in the West.33

REFERENCES

1, Wasiti, Hakim Nayyr, Tibb al-Arab, (Urdu translation of Arabian Medicine, by Edward G. Browne, Lahore, 1954, p. 368.

2. Briffault, Robert, The Making of Humanity, Islamic Foundation, Lahore, 1980, P. 201.

3. Sarton, George, Introduction to the History of Science, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1950, Vol. III, p. 1729.

4. Wasiti, Hakim Nayyr, Muslim Contribution to Medicine, Lahore, 1962, p. 2.

5. Landau, Rom, Islam And the Arabs, George Allen & Unwin, Ltd., London, 1958, p.178.

6. Wasiti, op. cit., p. 4.

7. Ibid.

8. Elgood, Medical History of Persia And Eastern Muslim Caliphate, p. 179.

9. Arnold & Guillaume, The Legacy of Islam, Oxford. 1949, p. 221.

10. Wasiti, op. cit., p. 10.

11. Al-Qifti, ‘Ali Ibn Yusuf, Tãrikh al-Hukama, Leipzig, 1903, p. 158.

12. Sarton, op. cit., p. 573.

13. Ibid. p. 574.

14. Ibid.

15. Wasiti, Tibb al-Arab, pp. 52-56.

16. Ibid., p. 609.

17. Ibid., Wasiti, op. cit., p. 65.

18. Al-Qifti, op. cit., p. 171. Vol. I, p. Sarton, op. cit.

19. Ibid., p. 639.

20. Wasiti, op. cit., pp. 56-57. A1-Qif;i, op. cit., p. 190.

21. Wasiti, pp. 73-77.

22. Sarton, op. cit., p. 679.

23. Ibid., p. 680.

24. Ibid., Haji Khalifa, Kashf al-Zunun, Istanbul, p. 949.

25. Ibid., p. 679.

26. Haji Khalifa, Kashf al-Zunun, Istanbul, 1943, VoL I p. 946.

27. Ibid, p. 411. Wasiti, op. cit. pp, 343-362.

28. Al-Qifti, op. cit., p. 413.; Elgood, op. cit., pp. 203, 205.

29. Al-Qifti, op. cit., p. 80. ; Sarton, op. cit., Vol. 11, Part I, p. 230.

30. Ibid.,

31. Ibid, pp. 231-233.

32. Ibid, p. 234 ; Wãsiti, op. cit., p. 128.

33. Ibid., p. 447. ; Sarton, op. cit., Part II, p. 1099.

By: Md. Wasim Aktar

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