This may change with the growing popularity of laser spine surgery, a minimally invasive procedure that promises long-term relief from back pain. Although lasers have been used in surgical procedures for decades, their effect in spine surgery has yet to be proven. But this hasn’t stemmed its popularity in the U.S., where many health practitioners now offer laser spine surgery.

But how does the procedure work? First, it’s important to understand that traditional surgery, which often involves opening up the back and requires up to a year of recovery, is designed for back pain caused by spinal problems. These procedures basically tweak the spine to fix displacements and other physical problems. Laser surgery, on the other hand, addresses the source of pain in the nerves by trimming off the ends and reducing the size of vertebral disks. This relieves the pressure on the spine and adjacent tissues, which causes the pain in conditions such as bone spurs, spinal stenosis, and herniated disks.

Traditionally, these procedures are done with a similar minimally invasive procedure that does not involve lasers. Unlike laser surgery, however, these have been proven effective and are widely used by practitioners in the U.S. Because it is a fairly new procedure, the success rate remains unproven, although many patients claim to feel much better after the procedure. Most people opt for laser spine surgery after having consulted several doctors and usually spent a good amount of money on treatments that have brought little or no relief.

So should you go for laser spine surgery, or opt for a more traditional procedure? There’s no black-and-white answer to this question, as each patient has a different set of needs. Several factors come into play: the type and source of your back pain, the treatments you’ve previously tried, and various aspects of your medical history. Laser surgery may work wonders for some people, but others may come out of it worse than they started off. That’s why it pays to do your homework, talk to your doctor, and make sure you’re making the right choice.

If you do decide to get laser spine treatment, it’s important to get it done by an experienced professional. It is a relatively new procedure, and you want to make sure you’re in good hands. The safest thing to do is consult your doctor and discuss your options, and ask about getting laser spine surgery. If it is an option, your doctor may even be able to refer you to a reputable practitioner in your area.

The problem is often that the patient feels alone, even when there’s a whole team of professionals behind them. What they really need is a treatment where they’re guided every step of the way. They need encouragement, support, and constant reminders that they’re making progress. This personal touch is what many recovery centers lack. But it’s also what places like The Treatment Center offer their patients: a supportive environment coupled with a full range of professional services.

Patients at the Treatment Center have access to full detoxification programs, rehabilitation aid, diagnoses, help with multiple addictions, and partial hospitalization. The medical team is made up of psychiatrists and dependency experts with decades of experience between them, much of it in the field of chemical addiction and counseling. The center also offers outpatient services with quality that’s at par with the best in the country.

All these credentials are set off by a personalized approach to treatment. Rather than predetermined treatments, patients follow programs that address the root of the problem. For example, patients who have become dependent on prescription medication are usually treated first for their dependency, then for the cause, whether it’s an accident, mental trauma, or a chronic disease. Treatments can include massage, acupuncture, and oral medications, depending on the patient’s needs.

The environment is designed to take the fear out of the process, which is what keeps most patients from taking that first step. Detox plans are individualized based on full medical assessments, and include emotional and psychiatric support alongside medical procedures. This helps ease the mental strain that tends to come with detoxification, such as the fear of failure and the withdrawal symptoms.

Because the service is personalized, it’s not only the patient that doesn’t feel alone. Family and friends also feel that they’re getting real support beyond the medical treatments, and that they’re doing more to help the patient. After all, a good treatment center isn’t just about getting rid of the problem–it’s also about preparing people, and those around them, for life after addiction.

One thing to keep in mind when buying alternative health supplements is reputation. There’s no way a fad company can last more than a couple of years before authorities crack down on them. Companies that have been in business for a while owe their longevity to customer trust, which in turn is built through consistency and long-term results.

A little homework can go a long way. Look for government websites such as the Better Business Bureau, and make sure your sources are unbiased. If you’re reading a review from a website that sells the product or a competing product, it’s always going to be biased. Besides government sites, you can also look for information portals and blogs. Ads are a good way to tell if you can trust what you’re reading; if a site is chock-full of ads, chances are the content is sponsored by one or more companies, or is even owned by supplement manufacturers themselves.

Of course, any information on the internet should be taken with a grain of salt. Even the steadiest companies will have a couple of bad raps from disgruntled customers, and even bad ones might turn up glowing reviews from easy-to-please buyers. It’s not even uncommon for companies to sponsor false reviews praising their product or criticizing their competition. These are pretty easy to spot, though. Instead of relying on what one or two people have to say, get a feel of what the public generally feels about the product, and then make your choice.

The best way to make sure you’re getting the real deal is to have it come from your doctor. Talk to your doctor about taking alternative health supplements and ask what kind would work best for you. Better yet, he or she can recommend products or brands that have proven results in other patients. It may even turn out that you don’t need them–after all, you can get most of what you need from just a healthy diet and lifestyle!

Urban Planning

Urban planners concern themselves with improving life quality in communities. Although the name suggests they work in cities, they also work their magic on small towns and distant suburbs; in fact, many of them specialize in the development of urban centers from such areas. As an urban planning major, you touch on different fields including economics, finance, real estate, architecture, engineering, and environmental science. You may end up working for government agencies, private companies, or non-profit organizations, and when you rack up enough experience you can make six figures a year.

Organizational Studies

It sounds pretty commonplace, but it’s a field that’s highly specialized yet surprisingly versatile. Organizational studies majors look into the way people behave as parts of organizations–towns, companies, clubs, even governments. Courses require good leadership and analytical skills, and as expected, graduates often rise quickly up the organizational ladder and manage their own teams within a year. Salaries range from $60,000 to $100,000 a year, depending on experience.

Informatics

A fairly new term, informatics is part computer science and part social studies. It’s all about how humans relate to IT and how computers shape the modern world: how it’s made, processed, passed around, lost and preserved. On the job, you can expect to work in pretty much any field that requires data management–and these days that means just about anywhere. Banks, schools, and government offices are among the biggest customers. Because the job prospects are so varied, salaries can range from $30,000 a year to over $100,000.

Actuarial Science

Actuaries specialize in risk management and risk assessment for insurance, business, and management purposes. The field has been around for a long time, but it’s only fairly recently that a dedicated program has appeared in universities. Not surprisingly, there’s a lot of math and statistics involved, as well as logic and code-cracking. It’s still a very small field, which means it’s highly competitive–once you get your degree, you have to pass a series of tests to be able to practice. But it’s all worth the trouble: an actuary can make up to $200,000 a year.

Accessible technology, fast travel, and an increasingly “flat” global marketplace have made it a must to be able to interact in different environments with different people. In other words, if you went to school with people from all over the world, you’ve got an edge over a graduate whose school has less student variety. It’s not quite as telling as your grades or your experience, but in a job market dominated by global-minded companies (or companies that like to think they are), it’s a plus that’s worth looking into.

The Society for Human Resource Management, a professional association based in Virginia, reports that 69% of American companies put a premium on diversity. Among other things, this means that they make it a point to ensure that all employees are able to take in different cultural backgrounds. If it isn’t already, in the next few years it might be quite common for interviewers to bring up school diversity when screening candidates.

So what exactly constitutes diversity? To be considered diverse, a college or university should aim to take in students from a broad range of backgrounds, whether it’s economic, ethnic, religious, political, or educational. The same applies for faculty members and other employees, although it’s not as pronounced. Diversity can also be reflected in the types of student organizations, campus events, internship opportunities, and student exchange programs on offer.

More than the job opportunities, however, a diverse institution makes for a much more rewarding school experience. Working with people from all walks of life allows a student to encounter different ways of thinking, as well as out-of-the-box approaches to problems ranging from calculus equations to taking a stand on tuition fee increases. Several surveys have shown that students from diverse universities have better satisfaction levels, both socially and academically.

If you want to learn more about diversity in your school or want to take it into account when choosing one, visit the school’s cultural affairs office (or the equivalent) and see what services are offered to different communities. It may not seem to matter when you’re knee-deep in papers and exams, but you just might be thankful for it down the road.

Figures from the Association of American Medical Colleges show that last year, about half of medical students who put dermatology as their first choice for residency were rejected. In contrast, the acceptance rate for internal medicine was 98%, while that for family medicine was 99%.

And it’s not a matter of competence: many of those who failed to get dermatology residencies were top students in their respective classes. The reason is that dermatology continues to be a niche field, with less than 500 residencies up for grabs. Internal medicine offers over 5,000 residencies, while family medicine has about 2,500.

The demand is understandable considering the high price of aesthetic procedure. A Botox treatment can pay 20 times as much as a heart disease check on a per-hour basis, with the added perk of flexible hours and not being on call all the time. These work conditions are attracting the country’s best medical students, leaving primary-care fields to graduates of foreign medical schools. These doctors, although just as capable, seldom stay longer than a few years, choosing instead to practice in their home countries. This explains the growing shortage of practitioners in many other medical fields, which in turn contributes to the less-than-ideal state of American healthcare.

Current and would-be dermatologists see their specialty as more than skin-deep. According to them, because skin problems are more noticeable than, say, high blood pressure, they can cause psychological problems that can affect a patient’s overall well-being. And not all dermatology patients have superficial needs: plastic surgery is sometimes needed to restore facial features following an accident or when a tumor spreads to visible areas.

Another thing that lends credence to skin care is the rate at which technological developments and treatments are entering the market. Doctors have access to a wide range of tools to help diagnose and treat even the most difficult skin problems, and often, they don’t have to consult with other practitioners to reach a diagnosis.

Not all aspiring dermatologists are after the job conditions, although it’s definitely a welcome perk. Some are more interested in research, going after new treatments and crafting new procedures for diseases like skin cancer. In any case, if you’re ever in need of a capable doctor in the next few years, you’ll know where to look.

One attractive solution is to look abroad. There’s little doubt that American and British universities are among the world’s best, but they are notoriously expensive. Other countries have equally strong yet much more accessible educational systems–the kind that lets you pay your tuition in full, with more than enough left for food, rent, and even a little travel. Here are some places you may want to look.

Spain (and the Hispanosphere)
A full-time graduate program at a Spanish university can cost around $2,000 a year, roughly a fifth of what you would pay in the U.S. The University of Barcelona and the University of Madrid are among the best in the country. In South America, the University of Sao Paolo in Brazil is a consistent top-notcher; in Mexico, the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) is a source of international acclaim. These schools are especially strong in history and the social sciences, and are fairly open to interdisciplinary interests.

France
The French take pride in their intellectual culture, and they have the educational tools to prove it. Foreign grad students pay as little as EUR200 ($265) for a year of internationally renowned education. The École Normale Supérieure de Paris is ranked 28th in the world and offers master’s programs in 50 areas, including arts and literature, social sciences, science, health, and law.

Singapore
There’s a reason Singapore has become the favourite destination of Asian grad students. The best universities charge under $5,000 per year of graduate study for foreign students; this includes Singapore National University, which ranks just behind the École Normale Supérieure de Paris in world rankings. Selections outside Asian studies and history may be limited, but travel opportunities are cheap and abundant.

South Africa
Education was one of the first things to bloom in South Africa after the apartheid, with locals more than ready to enjoy their newfound intellectual freedom. Johannesburg, the capital, and the tourist city of Cape Town have the strongest offerings in the country, with international student tuition averaging $4,000 a year. The cost of living is also quite low, which is why a lot of graduate students seem to spend as much time on the beach as they do in the library.

The method challenges the current system of tracking virus spread through mathematical algorithms. The latter’s flaw is that it assumes that every virus is equally spread from one population to another, which is hardly ever the case–social interaction always comes into play and throws the pattern off track. For example, according to Almogy, Africa has a high concentration of HIV while Asia and North America have the largest share of some flu strains. This is proof that viral infections are in part a social phenomenon.

By adding (digital) human interaction into the mix, the researchers expect to get a more realistic look at viral interaction. Facebook, the world’s largest social network with 800 million active users, is an ideal place for such a study. Once a user installs PiggyDemic, the app follows his or her news feed to see which people they interact with. Uninfected users are given risk rankings such as “immune” or “susceptible” based on their interactions with infected contacts. A network visualization tool allows them to see how the viruses are passed on from one person to another.

Besides tracking, PiggyDemic also doubles as a health guide for users who install it, offering tips to help users make healthy choices. It can also be used as a game, with people trying to “infect” as many of their friends as they can. Perhaps most importantly, the app has also been designed to track real-life virus outbreaks in real time by allowing people to report when they are actually infected. Such a tracking method can alert people in the network of the added risk.

The initial findings already seem to challenge current beliefs about virus spread. For instance, although the app is not configured to incorporate seasonal changes, the flu “virus” has spread more in the winter, the usual peak period. This suggests that in addition to environmental factors, social patterns can account for the rise and fall of different viruses through the seasons.

The reasons vary from the practical, such as the lengthy trip to school and the constant threat of teacher strikes, to situation-specific, as is the case with children who show promise in art, sports, or other areas outside the curriculum. Some parents simply enjoy the experience and want to monitor their child’s progress with things other than grades. There’s no universal rule as to whether or not a child should be homeschooled–it’s a decision that should take into account several factors, including the child’s learning style, the parents’ commitment, and the many implications it can have for the child’s future.

The first thing you should ask yourself is whether you have the time and energy for homeschooling. It takes more than a couple of hours of spelling and math on the kitchen table; you need to follow a curriculum, prepare lessons, give and grade assignments. You should also be careful not to take the ‘home’ in homeschooling too seriously: a child needs to get out of the home and learn from things other than schoolbooks. Trips to the park, museums, and local libraries are essential to rounding out a homeschool program.

Next, make sure you can afford it–you may not have to pay tuition or buy as many school supplies, but it’s a given that at least one parent will have to commit to the task full-time. If you’ve lived with two incomes for a while, this may take some getting used to. Compare the annual costs of sending a child to school to the income you’ll be giving up if you decide to go this route.

The most important factor, of course, is whether your child is ready for it. Some children simply thrive better with parents as teachers, but others will feel they are missing out on things like making friends, learning from a variety of mentors, and getting to know other people. It’s often a good practice to take it one year or one semester at a time, and leave a door open so that your child can go back to traditional schooling any time they want.

Grades aren’t everything

So how do you manage kids with different strengths in the classroom, or even at home? Experts agree that it starts with looking beyond grades. It’s long been known that grades aren’t a good indicator of ability or effort. A child who gets a C after hours of studying deserves just as much credit as one who coasts through school with straight A’s. Parents and teachers should reward not the grade, but the achievement.

Set different goals

The easiest way to do this is to set individual goals. If getting A’s is easy for one child, give him or her a goal that helps them work on a weakness; for example, teachers can monitor relationships with peers and reward them for making more friends during the school year. Likewise, if a child is actively involved in school plays but works only hard enough to get a C, a more appropriate goal would be to move that up to a B, because getting the lead role would not be much of a challenge. In other words, schools and homes need to accept that a one-size-fits-all approach to education doesn’t work.

Offer realistic rewards

Another common false assumption is that all children respond to the same rewards. It’s easy to take for granted that all kids like candy, but there’s always that one child who doesn’t–and this child can miss out on the learning and development opportunities offered by a classroom reward system. It’s important to take time to find out what your child likes, and figure out how to use it for encouragement. For example, if your kid doesn’t like the movies but loves going to museums, reward him or her with a trip to his favourite one when he reaches a target grade or achievement.

The grade system isn’t ideal, but it’s the best way we currently know to put an educational system in place. The challenge for teachers and parents is to help children realize that while grades are important for a stable future, having fun and learning without pressure are vital to making the most of their childhood.

Florals for focus: Flowers have been found to stir positive feelings in people, most likely because we’ve come to associate it with something pure and natural. They also seem to influence the parts of the brain that control memory, motivation, and problem-solving. The study saw a 17% increase in learning speed in people who reacted positively to the smell of flowers.

Jasmine for confidence: Nervous about an upcoming presentation? Spray on a jasmine scent the morning of the big day. The flower’s smell is linked to an increase in awareness and self-confidence, as well as an overall feeling of wellness. Researchers think it alters the brain’s beta waves, which have to do with wakefulness and consciousness.

Green apples for weight loss: Apple scents were first noted as a natural remedy for migraines. New studies show that it can also aid in weight loss by reducing one’s appetite. It’s unusual for the smell of food to curb your cravings, but this scent seems to work by making your brain think you’ve eaten the thing you’re smelling, and therefore making you feel full.

Chocolate for depression: Everyone’s favourite comfort food is turning out to be the ultimate comfort scent as well. The caffeine in chocolate reduces anxiety, and cannabinoids, a special class of compounds, induces a mild feeling of euphoria. People tend to react to both effects because taste is strongly related to smell, and often, just the smell of chocolate can achieve much of the same effect.

Citrus for tiredness: Often used to relieve dizziness and motion sickness, citrus fruits have been found to improve lethargy and a general lack of energy. It works on the same principle as smelling salts, making you more alert and heightening your senses. It may also help that many people associate orange juice with breakfast, and this triggers a response in the brain that stirs you awake.

Myth #1: Older people need less sleep

Babies sleep a lot longer than the recommended 6-8 hours, but that progression doesn’t continue into late adulthood. Once you hit your teens, you’re going to need the same amount of sleep until you’re 60. You may have problems sleeping as you grow older, and that’s why many grandparents are up at dawn. Chances are they take lengthy naps around midday to make up for it.

Myth #2: Alcohol is a sleeping aid

That last glass of wine may make you feel drowsy, but you don’t get the same kind of sleep. Alcohol-induced sleep tends to be shallow and restless, which explains why you often wake up the morning after feeling more tired than last night. You’re also more likely to snore and have dreams that wake you up in the middle of the night.

Myth #3: Snoring is okay

Most of the time, snoring is just an annoying habit, but sometimes it points to a deeper problem. A common cause is obstructive sleep apnea, a condition that blocks your airways as you sleep. Some people simply snore, while others stop breathing for long periods. In any case, sleep apnea can make you extremely tired in the morning and heightens your risk of heart disease–and therefore needs medical attention.

Myth #4: You can train yourself to sleep less

Some people think they can get used to sleeping just four to five hours a day. And they do get by, but not without a price. Studies show that doing this results in even more sleepiness during the day, getting worse as the weeks go by. So the occasional all-nighter may be fine, but making a habit of it is never a good idea.

Myth #5: Napping is bad for you

It’s mostly a matter of how the nap affects your nighttime sleep–and it varies from person to person. If you already have sleep problems, napping can make you less sleepy at night and perpetuate the cycle. For most people, a 20-minute nap when you’re really drained can be helpful; any longer than that and you risk waking up with a headache.

Get some sleep: Young people tend to stay up way past midnight and wake up later in the day, thinking they’re still getting their eight hours. But it’s not about meeting the quota; it’s about getting rest when your body needs it most. If you have trouble falling asleep, try a glass of warm milk just before going to bed.

Skip the hot chocolate: Next time you’re in the mood for a nice warm drink, reach for some herbal tea instead of coffee or cocoa. Not only are they lower in calories; they’re also better for your digestive system and give you more energy. Green tea is especially good in cold weather because it’s rich in anti-oxidants, which help fight off disease.

Opt for natural sugars: The sweet tooth is a lot more active in the winter, but don’t give in to every craving. White sugar, commonly found in candy, pastries and soda, can weaken your body’s defenses and make you vulnerable to whatever disease is going around (usually a cold or the flu). Fruits can satisfy your craving in a much healthier way; you can have them fresh or frozen.

Make some soup: Your body needs more vegetables in the winter, but if you’re not a fan of greens, soups are a great way to get some of that into your system. A hearty bowl of vegetable soup can contain two servings of vegetables (experts recommend five to six a day). Cream soups are also a good choice, but make sure to use low-fat cream and low-sodium broth.

Get out: You need your daily dose of sunshine, so head out for at least a few minutes a day. Indoor air with the added heating can be very dry and cause headaches and respiration problems. Take a short walk–wait for the warmest hour of the day if you have to–and take a moment to breathe in the fresh air. You’ll be a lot more energized and awake when you get back in.

Antibiotics are perhaps the most common of earache remedies. Naturally, they work best when the pain is caused by an infection of the ear or some other organ, such as the sinuses. But the reason many people find it effective is that they are often coupled with analgesics, or pain relievers. Using antibiotics for earaches can therefore get in the way of diagnosis. When you’re not sure what’s causing the pain, or if you’re already taking antibiotics for something else, you may want to find another solution.

Some people prefer home remedies to combat earache. These remedies vary greatly, and some are more scientifically sound than others. The simplest and least invasive is a warm compress. This can be as simple as pressing a warm cloth over the ear and surrounding area for a few minutes. Sometimes this will eliminate the earache altogether, especially if the cause is physical (such as pressure or impact).

If the ear is inflamed, garlic and mullein flower oil can be used to bring down the swelling. Garlic is known to have natural antibiotics and little or no side effects, making it ideal for physical applications. Mullein flower oil is used almost exclusively for earaches and is known to reduce irritation. The two can be used in combination, or even mixed with some warm olive oil. If the pain is mostly external, onion paste–made with a mix of onion powder and water or olive oil–can be applied to the surrounding area.

Pressure-related earaches, including those that accompany migraine attacks, can be cured by inhaling some eucalyptus steam. Vicks, popular for de-clogging nostrils and relaxing, is made with eucalyptus. You can rub some around your ear and see if the pain subsides after a few minutes. A more long-term remedy is to add some eucalyptus oil to hot, almost-boiling water and inhaling the steam for a few minutes, at least three times a day.

Of course, if the earache persists or if other symptoms show up, homemade remedies can only do so much. If you think there’s more to the earache, avoid the more invasive methods described above (such as oil drops) and get a proper diagnosis right away.

Most people associate exercise with the outdoors, so going to the gym just doesn’t cut it. For one thing, some find that treadmills and spinners are poor imitations of grass, pavement and fresh air. For another, many gyms require a one-year membership when one can exercise outdoors for free for half of the year. But it may be worth checking out–perhaps individual sessions aren’t that much more expensive if you go twice a week and don’t work with a personal trainer. University and high school gyms may also offer lower rates, although the latter may have fewer facilities.

That being said, try to keep your routine for as long as you’re able to. Invest in cold-weather gear such as a fleece sweater, thick socks, and thermal tops so you can adapt to the weather. While you’ll reach your limit eventually, it’ll allow you to enjoy the outdoors longer. Keep doing this year after year and you’ll notice you’re more tolerant after a while.

Indoor sports can also be a good way to stay active. If you run or hike in the summer, switch to an equally challenging activity, such as badminton or table tennis, once it gets too cold for your comfort. Many schools open up their gyms to the public in the evenings, when the students are home. Some even hold sports workshops there. And don’t just stick to competitive sports–there are other ways to stay active, such as dance classes, yoga, and martial arts.

Even taking walks outdoors can go a long way in staying fit for the winter. You burn more calories walking the same distance in the winter than in the summer, since you use more energy to maintain your body temperature. So make every little bit count–walking to the grocery, parking a few blocks off, walking the dog after dinner. The benefits add up without you even noticing.

The concept has been widely applied in alternative medicine, and in recent years has even found its way to cancer patients. Ayurvedic treatment for cancer differs from traditional treatment in that it’s largely about rejuvenating the affected cells, rather than killing them (as chemotherapy and radiotherapy do). It’s a known fact that these treatments kill healthy cells alongside the cancerous ones, causing numerous side effects. By applying a gentler hand to these cells, according to advocates, Ayurveda not only eliminates discomfort, but also improves one’s overall well-being.

The science behind Ayurvedic treatment stems from evolution, which states that when an organism (such as a cell) is no longer able to survive in its environment, it responds by changing its form. The same thing happens when a cell becomes cancerous, according to Ayurveda. Doctors know for a fact that cancer cells develop from a mutation in the cell’s genetic makeup, but aren’t sure whether the cause is genetic, environmental, or a combination of both.

Ayurvedic treatment is made up of three elements: diet, medicine, and Panchakarma. Patients are put on a diet designed specifically for their constitution (“dosha”) and the season. Medicines are often a mix of powders, teas, and medicated oils derived from plants and herbs.

Panchakarma is a regime on its own, consisting of five treatments: nasal therapy (“nasya”), vomiting (“vamana”), purging (“virechana”), and two therapeutic enemas (“vasti”). They are meant to eliminate toxins from the body and restore the balance between the five elements. Rejuvenation is thought to occur at the DNA level, in effect curing the cancer cells.

It’s worth noting that Ayurvedic medicine is compatible with traditional medicine. Many doctors in the West combine it with hospital treatment and report good results, if only for the relaxation it offers the patient. However, no alternative medicine has been proven as effective as medical treatment, and therefore cannot replace traditional methods. If you’re considering Ayurvedic medicine for cancer or any other disease, consult your doctor and make sure it won’t disrupt your current regime.

As the name suggests, a physical therapy assistant helps a physical therapist deliver services to patients. This can involve teaching patients how to use support devices, offering tips on rehabilitative exercise, and administering procedures such as electrical stimulation and massage. They also record patient progress and responses, and write up reports for the therapist. This sets them apart from physical therapist aides, who do mostly physical work (such as transporting patients between rooms) and clerical work (such as answering phones and distributing forms).

In most areas, physical therapist assistants are legally required to have at least an associate degree in the field. The program takes about two years and includes a mix of on-the-job experience and academic courses. Students learn anatomy, physiology, and psychology alongside general education courses such as English and algebra. Hands-on training requires clinical work, where students are introduced to first aid, cardio-pulmonary resuscitation, and emergency field treatment. They are also taught on-the-job skills such as interpersonal relations and counseling.

Physical therapy assistant schools are accredited by the Commission on Accreditation in Physical Therapy Education, part of the American Physical Therapy Association. As of 2009, there were 223 accredited physical therapy assistant programs in the U.S.

Before practicing, physical therapy assistants usually need a license, certification, or registration, depending on the state they intend to work. They must also pass the National Physical Therapy Exam, and sometimes a separate State Exam. Some states also set parameters for maintaining licensure, such as taking additional courses or continuing education credits. These rules are set by the state’s licensure board.

Many physical therapy assistant schools offer these courses as a way for students to boost their qualifications and therefore their job and salary prospects. The APTA gives additional credit to those who have certifications in specialized physical therapy, such as pediatric, geriatric, cardio-pulmonary, neuromuscular, musculo-skeletal, and integumentary (skin, hair and nails). Some students also expand their knowledge in non-clinical fields, such as managing healthcare centers or joining the academe.

This reignites an older question. Does it make more sense to work in the academe or the industry? Should you start cashing in on all those skills you spent the last four years developing, or stay in school and help people who are still on their way? There are pros and cons to both sides, and at the end of the day the only one who can make the decision is you. In most fields, however, you have five things to consider:

Choice: As a university researcher or professor, you usually get to choose your subjects. You get a bit of this freedom researching for a private company, but there’s more pressure to get results, whether it’s a concept or a product–and there are professional relations to consider.

Money: Much of the work in academia goes to getting your work funded. It can get very competitive, especially in up-and-coming fields like computer science and physics. In the corporate world, your employer is your financier, and the pressure is more on proving you deserve that funding.

Scale: Academic research is necessarily limited by the available resources, although they do allow you to plan follow-up projects over several years. A competent industrial researcher can get his tools much more easily, but usually can’t plan too far into the future, as his company is more concerned with fast results.

Goals: An academic’s goals are usually to get funding, get published, and teach at the graduate level, in that order. As an employee, you want to produce what your company is paying you for, whether it’s a product, a strategy, or sales targets. If you want to publish and teach along the way, great, but your employer is concerned first and foremost about your product.

Impact: If you’re the idealistic type, you’ll want to stay in the academe, where you can choose to work on meaningful projects. Not that you can’t do that in the corporate world; it’s just that as an academic, you can focus on your own passion, without the pressure of deadlines and bottom lines.

Breast thickening may be accompanied by a mild or sharp pain, or just general discomfort. Skin thickening may appear as a lump on the surface that’s easily felt, and may cause some itching. Tissue thickening can occur close to the surface or further in, the discomfort can increase when you move. It may feel like a lump that moves around, or just an area that feels denser than the rest of the breast.

Swollen lymph nodes can accompany breast thickening or be mistaken for it. Common reasons include reactions from breastfeeding, hormonal changes, or even just stress. If it persists, however, or of the pain gets more intense, you should see a doctor right away. Other possible causes include:

Fibrocystic changes: This refers to a change in your tissue due to hormonal shifts, which in turn can be caused by pregnancy, breastfeeding, menopause, or a new medication. These are common in women aged 35 to 50 and may be accompanied by tenderness and small, harmless lumps. Some women experience this every menstrual cycle.

Fibroadenoma: It sounds serious, but a fibroadenoma is just a benign lump that’s normal in women between 20 and 30, and for still-unknown reasons occurs most frequently in African-American women. The lump can range from 1cm to 5cm across, and usually require no treatment unless they’re unusually big.

Lobular breast cancer: This is a type of breast cancer that’s hard to catch because breast thickening is often the first symptom that appears, rather than solid, detectable lumps. It occurs most frequently in post-menopausal women, so if you’re past this age you should be particularly wary of thickening and perform regular checks.

Inflammatory breast cancer: IBC is perhaps the most serious cause of breast thickening, but thankfully it’s also the rarest. It’s an aggressive type of cancer that can spread to nearby organs if left unchecked. If breast thickening is accompanied by inverted nipples, skin changes and tenderness, and occurs shortly after the last day of your period, get in touch with a doctor.

In the U.S., the average medical billing and coding salary ranges from $30,000 to $50,000 per year. This depends largely on the conditions of your work–whether you work from home or at the hospital, how big the organization is, and whether you have health insurance and other benefits provided. Medical coding and transcription are usually the highest-paid sectors, as they’re more specialized. A medical records coding technician can make around $45,000 a year working full-time. Medical billing is less lucrative–a clerk whose job mostly involves office paperwork usually makes less than $35,000.

Although the levels of specialization vary, medical billing and coding require the same basic knowledge. Both involve learning medical codes, either to send accurate invoices to insurance companies or to work more directly with insurance agents. This takes anywhere from six months to several years of training, depending on how specialized you want to get. For example, transcriptionists often work from audio files recorded by doctors, who are often too busy to write things down themselves. This obviously calls for better attention to detail, which is why a transcriptionist’s pay has more room for growth.

Despite the average (and sometimes below average) pay, medical billing and coding offer some pretty useful benefits. For one thing, it’s a stable job: since people will always need healthcare, they’re not as vulnerable to drops in the economy. Computerization may lessen demand but in a key field such as health care, it’ll take several years before machines can be trusted fully over human intervention.

Workplace benefits also come into play when gauging medical billing and coding salary levels. Those who work in large hospitals get regular vacation time, health coverage, and maybe even a retirement plan, which they pay for (usually partially) out of their salaries. Independent workers enjoy a more relaxed environment working from home, can choose their own coverage and declare more tax deductions–and save for the occasional deadline, they can usually set their own hours.

This has of course become a major roadblock in quitting smoking. As if quitting weren’t hard enough by itself, it turns out that it can make you fat–although the benefits no doubt outweigh a little weight gain. Thankfully, new research suggests there may be a way to kick the habit without the extra pounds.

A recent study by Yale School of Medicine scientists showed how nicotine, an active ingredient in cigarettes, works to suppress hunger in smokers. This can pave the way for the creation of a new drug which would stave off cravings in new quitters, helping them quit without gaining weight.

The researchers found that nicotine activates a group of neurons in the hypothalamus, a small part of the brain that controls several functions, including hunger. These neurons then send a signal that the body is full. Nicotine appears to work by activating a different set of receptors, rather than the ones responsible for cigarette cravings.

The initial goal was to isolate the function of the brain’s nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, which appeared to be nicotine’s main target. The scientists tried a depression drug that had earlier proven effective on these receptors, and found that mice that were given the drug had a lower appetite than those who didn’t take it.

Looking deeper into the data, the researchers noted that the drug appeared to target specific nicotine receptors, which in turn made neurons in a section of the hypothalamus reactive. In mice where this reaction wasn’t present, there was little to no weight loss. However, the receptors involved were different from those associated with tobacco urges, leading to the assumption that it was possible to suppress the urge to smoke without increasing appetite.

The study, which was published June 10th in the journal Science, also proved one other fact: that smoking does play a role in weight loss and maintenance. But this shouldn’t be taken as a reason to keep smoking for weight loss purposes. The paper’s senior author, Marina Picciotto, said their ultimate goal was to find a way for people to maintain a healthy weight when they give up smoking, and maybe develop a treatment for obese non-smokers as well.

In Hungary, for example, the industry generates a cool 227 million euros every year. That’s 40% of the European market. And it doesn’t end there: the country has announced it will expand its dental tourism programs over the next three years, with the goal of doubling its revenue.

In a statement last May, Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orban said dental tourism was the country’s most valuable tool for getting back on its feet. He promised to invest heavily in the field, striving to provide higher standards of care and offering up incentives to keep its top dentists at home.

Turkey is also an emerging destination for cheap dental care. In the next three years, the country’s medical and dental tourism markets are expected to grow 26% with the help of increased spending in both the public and private sectors. The government aims in particular to attract a North American market, banking on its hospitals’ ties with prestigious American institutions such as Harvard and Johns Hopkins.

Medical tourism, on the other, remains concentrated on the other side of the Atlantic. Costa Rica has risen in the last few years from providing little more than cosmetic surgery to offering spinal cord surgery, cancer treatment, cardiology, and orthopedic. For a fraction of the American rate, patients get highly professional care, often from doctors who have trained in the U.S.

The trend is spreading throughout Central and South America, particularly in Nicaragua, Mexico, Panama, and El Salvador. Between these countries are 14 large health facilities accredited by the same commissions as those that monitor American hospitals. Not surprisingly, their biggest market is the U.S., although a Canadian following is likely as Canadians head to the south during winter months.

A number of experts have observed that medical and dental tourism have become more local than global in recent years. This means that facilities in each region are bound to serve their closest neighbors–North Americans will seek care within their continent or in Latin America, while Europeans will opt for treatment in Europe. This saves them the cost of long-haul flights and accommodations, which can quickly offset the price difference in treatments.

The pay gap has existed for a long time, but it has widened significantly in the last ten years. Female doctors made only $3,600 less than their male counterparts in 1999, but the difference had gone up to $16,819 by 2008, according to a study at the University of Illinois at Chicago’s School of Public Health.

The findings aren’t all that surprising, according to the study’s head, Anthony Lo Sasso. Female doctors tend to opt for lower-paying jobs, usually in primary care, or simply work fewer hours, he said in a public statement.

What comes as a surprise, Lo Sasso said, is that the starting salary gap is still disconcertingly large even if we take into account the hours, the specialization, and other factors. For one thing, he pointed out, the pay differences exist equally in primary care and specialty fields.

Indeed, the preference for primary care fields, which include pediatrics and family medicine, has gone down from 1999 to 2008. While about half of women finishing med school or training went into primary care in 1999, only about 30% did so in 2008, approximately the same ratio as male doctors.

In an interview with Reuters, Lo Sasso admitted the salary differences were unexpected, and that they couldn’t as yet explain why–there are no observable characteristics unique to female doctors that could account for the gap.

The possibility of gender bias hasn’t been ruled out, but Lo Sasso says it’s not the only answer. It is just as possible that women are simply settling for less in exchange for more family-friendly terms, such as a regular schedule. Even outside healthcare, women are more likely to trade off a larger salary for non-monetary benefits.

The researchers obtained data from over 8,000 doctors who had just finished training programs in New York. They chose the Big Apple because it has the largest number of resident physicians and residency programs than the rest of the country.

The study was published in Health Affairs, a peer-reviewed journal on health policy and the healthcare business, in February 2011. The team was made up of Lo Sasso, Michael Richards of Yale University, Chiu-Fang Chou and of the University of Illinois at Chicago, and Susan Gerber of Northwestern University.

Anyway, it’s in the works now, and the results are nothing short of impressive. The HIV Prevention Trials Network, an organization funded by the U.S. National Institutes of Health, recently found in a series of trials that a treatment can both suppress HIV levels and stop the patient from passing it on.

The trial, known as HPTN 02, was carried out on 1,763 couples in which one partner was infected with HIV and the other was not. Ninety-seven percent of the respondents were heterosexual, and the remaining 3% were homosexual; they came from 13 sites across Asia, Africa, and North and South America. They were selected in a way that the infected partner did not display enough symptoms to qualify for conventional treatment, partly so that side effects did not cloud the results and partly to avoid spurning drug-resistant strains.

Half of the couples were given conventional treatment following current protocol. The HIV-infected partners were given drugs only if their condition began to develop into AIDS or if their conditions fell below critical levels, measured according to the presence of a particular cell in their blood. Infected partners in the other half were given the drugs right away. All were taught techniques to avoid transmission, given condoms, treated for existing sexually transmitted diseases, and given regular checkups.

Since the study began in 2005, only 28 of the infected respondents had transmitted HIV to their partners. All but one were in the control group (the one given HPTN 02), proof that drugs can cure and stop transmission at the same time.

The results were so decisive, according to The Economist, that the study had to stop ahead of schedule. Doing so would mean denying the subjects of the treatment, which was so effective that cutting it off for science would be immoral.

The approach was first put forward by Julio Montaner, director of the British Columbia Centre for Excellence in HIV/AIDS at the University of British Columbia. He has been pushing for the use of the drug for several years, and this study is the first big step towards it. A full cure may still take some time, but it looks like we’re well on our way.

Lumosity.com, launched four years ago by San Francisco startup Lumos Labs, works as a “mental gym” by offering daily games and exercises designed to sharpen users’ mental skills. The site now welcomes 2 million visitors per month and has some 12 million members–the number doubled over the past year–and is all set to put brain training on the mainstream market.

The idea first came to Michael Scanlan in 2005, who was then a neuroscience graduate student focusing on the brain’s adaptability to different demands. At the time, mental health was largely concentrated on older generations wanting to fight memory loss. Wondering whether a broader market existed for science-based brain training, he took a leave from grad school and teamed up with Kunal Sarkar and David Drescher on a Web-based training program.

It took the trio two years to come up with the right design, exercises, and user experience. But almost instantly after its 2007 launch, Lumosity attracted several venture capitalists and raised over $3 million in funding. Today, it’s one of the fastest-growing sites on the Web, ranking in the top 1,000, according to research group Quantcast.

Lumosity was modeled after fitness clubs, where users pay a monthly fee to access equipment and have their performance tracked. This came mostly from Sarkar, who was formerly involved in 24 Hour Fitness. Lumosity members pay $15 a month (less for one-year and two-year subscriptions) to play games and access personal performance data.

The founders’ goal is to make mental fitness as important a goal as physical fitness. According to Sarkar, they are tapping onto the same trend that made 24 Hour Fitness so popular: people becoming more concerned and thus more willing to invest in their well-being.

Another San Francisco company, Posit Labs, agrees. CEO Henry Mahncke, also a neuroscientist, says that some 10 years from now, brain fitness will become routine–and we’ll look back on how we accepted brain deterioration as part of aging for decades. Mahncke says this isn’t true–science as we know it allows for the prevention of  mental decline.

Posit Labs also produces mental fitness software, but is equally involved in research and the development of therapeutic programs for the mentally ill and for soldiers fresh out of war. Support for mental exercise has turned up in dozens of peer-reviewed studies, cited by Posit in its own research.

With better marketing and more funding, these companies can make brain training more popular and accessible. As Scanlan puts it, they’ve only unlocked the tip of the iceberg–and it can only get better.

New studies offer clues on how the brain detects and processes odors, and recent research is providing new insights on how this can affect well-being.

A group of researchers in Utah and Colorado are observing odor responses in mice. The four-year study, conducted at the University of Colorado in Denver, shows that smells are first detected in the olfactory bulb before being directed to the brain. Here, it is passed on to the olfactory cortex, which conducts complex analyses of the smell.

The big discovery, however, turned up between the bulb and the cortex. The researchers found that the two parts communicated by sending out a rapid stream of nerve cells. The original idea was that the olfactory bulb filtered the information and the olfactory cortex decided on the smell’s properties, such as whether the source is edible, according to lead researcher Diego Restrepo of the University of Colorado School of Medicine.

As it turns out, information is first processed in the bulb, which sends it to the cortex. What follows is a dialogue between the two organs, after which the brain steps into the picture.

The current use of aromatherapy relies more on essential oils being absorbed through the skin. Combined with massage, this creates a feeling of relaxation and well-being. Certain oils are also believed to help prevent disease, speed up recovery from illness and stress, and strengthen the body’s resistance.

The study’s findings bolster the idea that scents have a psychological as well as physical effect. Scents such as rose and lavender are known to lift the mood, while citrus scents are often used to combat depression. These usually work best in creating environments, such as adding a few drops to a bath or inhaling scented steam.

Separate studies suggest that aromatherapy massage may help alleviate menopausal symptoms and reduce the risk of breast cancer in women between 45 and 58 years old. In the latter, the oils used were sweet orange, jojoba, sandalwood, and lavender. Although probably not an alternative treatment by itself, researchers believe that aromatherapy massage can work as a complementary therapy to conventional methods.

By taking it slow, according to Waehner, one loses fat instead of muscle, which is the way sustainable weight loss should work. Diving straight into intense exercise can slim you down, but not necessarily in the right places.

Waehner says the first step is getting a checkup, especially if you’ve been ill or had an injury over the winter. You’ll want to know if your body is up for a new fitness regimen, and what approach will work best for your condition.

Next, she says, you must commit to 20 minutes to one hour of exercise for four to five days a week. Try to get access to basic equipment such as resistance bands, free weights, or treadmills and elliptical machines. You’ll also need to commit to a healthy diet on most days, if not all.

Cardio is vital to any weight loss program, according to Waehner. Besides burning calories, it conditions your heart and lungs for a range of fitness activities, whether it’s yoga, kick-boxing, or weight lifting. For effective weight loss, one should aim to get in 20 to 60 minutes of cardio five to six days a week, she added.

Next, you’ll want to work in some strength training. This works specific muscle groups, so you can concentrate on that bulging belly, the flabby arms, and other problem areas. Strength training also raises body metabolism, so you burn calories even when at rest. Popular strength training exercises include weight lifting, squats, pushups, and pullups.

Skipping meals is a big no-no, Waehner warns. When you’re well into your workout routine, you’ll want to stay fed and hydrated all day; otherwise you get lethargic and won’t have the strength to work out–even after you do eat. Instead of three big meals, try to snack lightly five to six times a day, Waehner suggested.

Most importantly, find an activity you enjoy–it’s the only way you can be sure you’ll stick to it. Other experts suggest finding a workout buddy or keeping a fitness journal to help you stay on track.

Ed Arling

A fo…

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As previously announced, the acquisition comprises the facilities located in Billingham, UK (MSD Biologics (UK), formerly Avecia Biologics) and Research Triangle Park, NC, US (Diosynth RTP).

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To receive a copy of our new paper, please click on the ‘Flexible Phase I Study Designs’ link at the base of our profile.

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